Brain and cognition (year one) Flashcards

Question

What does the superior colliculus do?

Answer 1

rapid eye movements

Answer 2

auditory reflexes

Answer 3

lots of nuclei

Answer 4

supervises sleep / arousal of cortex

Answer 5

raphe nuclei

Answer 6

voluntary action

Answer 7

- dopaminergic cells

Answer 8

- relay station/ control station

Answer 9

structure between inner ear/ primary auditory cortex

Answer 10

relays between eyes and primary visual cortex

Answer 11

- four Fs | - feeding, fighting, flighting and sex

Answer 12

- monitors body growth, endocrine glands | - connected to hypothalamus

Answer 13

Part of fight or flight response

Answer 14

- a neocortex with four lobes

Answer 15

basal ganglia, limbic system, cerebral cortex

Answer 16

regulates movement that is a timed action | - nuclei on side/ top of thalamus

Answer 17

caudate nucleus, putamen, globus pallidus

Answer 18

hippocampus, amygdala, fornix/olfactory bulb, cingulate cortex

Answer 19

emotional processing (fear condition, strong emotional responses)

Answer 20

learning, spatial navigation, long term memory

Answer 21

cingulate cortex, frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe

Answer 22

detection of conflict, reward anticipation

Answer 23

processing of smells (connecting smells to episodic memories

Answer 24

- 3-5mm layer on surface | - mostly made of glial cells (gray matter)

Answer 25

- bundles of axons connecting neurons in grey matter to other parts of the brain

Answer 26

grooves - sulci | bulges - gyri

Answer 27

visual inputs from lateral geniculate nucleus, processes visual signals - • Contains retinotopically organised visual maps

Answer 28

info from visual cortex, generates spatial representations for motor control/ action planning

Answer 29

• Dorsal pathway in the two visual streams model

Answer 30

: info from touch receptors, which are processed by “maps” on one side of the lateral fissure

Answer 31

planning, working memory, decision making

Answer 32

speech production

Answer 33

contains ventral visual pathway

Answer 34

: bottom of temporal lobe, facial recognition

Answer 35

language comprehension

Answer 36

: dedicated part of the nervous system that responds to physical inputs

Answer 37

 Visual system : light  Auditory system : vibrations in air  Olfactory system : chemicals in nose  Gustatory system : chemicals in mouth  Tactile receptors : mechanical deformation of skin  Nociception : skin damage  Vestibular system : gravity/ acceleration of the head

Answer 38

signals about outside world

Answer 39

signals about inside body

Answer 40

Converts physical energy into action potentials

Answer 41

just noticable distance

Answer 42

- JND increases with stimulus intensity

Answer 43

weber- fechner type scaling

Answer 44

p(I) = k(I)^a  P = subjective experience of intensity  I = objective intensity  K = proportionality constant  A = exponent (changes depending on stimuli) - Relationship between physical stimulus and sensation (often non-linear)

Answer 45

- Wertheimer, Koffka, Kohler

Answer 46

we segment the scene into figure and ground  Figure owns the borders, ground doesn’t  Bi-stablility : allow us to feel brain switch between interpretations

Answer 47

work with one eye shut

Answer 48

 Occlusion : near things occlude far things  Linear perspective : parallel lines converge on vanishing point  Texture gradients : texture becomes finer further away  Height : far things are higher  Motion parallax : Near things move faster than far things  Familiar size : things have a standard size

Answer 49

binocular disparity is useful  Only works over 10s of meters  3D cinemas e.g present different images to each eye and create artificial disparity, making image look very deep (touchable)

Answer 50

fusiform face area

Answer 51

pareidolia

Answer 52

- Galton : average face is attractive  Average face may generate a maximal brain response  May be that average faces are healthy which is adaptive

Answer 53

direct and active

Answer 54

active and indirect

Answer 55

: light reflected into eye is converted to neuronal electrical signals via photoreceptors

Answer 56

: output cells which send signals from optic nerve to the brain

Answer 57

 P cells (parvocellular): carry info about colour and fine detail  M cells (magnocellular) : carry low resolution information and detect motion

Answer 58

high acuity vision and has highest density of cone cells

Answer 59

contains an optic nerve bundle and has rod cells

Answer 60

- Info from left and right visual fields are transmitted to opposite sides of the primary visual cortex (posterior of brain) - Information in the upper part of visual field is transmitted to lower part of visual field

Answer 61

- Info transmitted from ganglion cells via optic nerve, via laterial geniculate nucleus and superior colliculus o LGN feeds into primary visual cortex

Answer 62

mapping of visual space onto v1

Answer 63

o Disproportionate amount of cortex represents fovea (centre) causes distortion in the cortical representation o Cortical magnification : gives high amount of space to centre of images

Answer 64

- Ganglion cell receptive fields : refer to region in visual field that produces neural response in cell o ON cell :- ON area is in the centre  light in the centre of receptive field will produce a large neuronal response vs light shone in periphery o OFF cell : - ON area is in the periphery  Light in periphery (receptive field) will produce a large neuronal response vs light shone in centre

Answer 65

area v1, striate cortex

Answer 66

6 layers of cells

Answer 67

each cell prefers either left or right eye input

Answer 68

columns of cells with receptive fields that monitor similar retinal position

Answer 69

- Ventral stream (inferotemporal): identity of objects/faces/scenes - Dorsal stream (posterior parietal) : visual control of action/motion and spatial processing

Answer 70

- Apperceptive agnosia : recognise visual shapes - Associative agnosia : recognise objects - Achromatopsia : recognise a colour - Prosopagnosia : recognise familiar faces - Alexia : recognise texts - Social emotional agnosia : interpret nonverbal social behaviour

Answer 71

DF : VISUAL FORM AGNOSIA - Damage in inferotemporal cortex - Very poor shape discrimination, but acuity and colour vision normal - Task : distinguish square from rectangle (only 80% correct at 2:1 ratio) - Poor at copying images but can accurately draw from memory (long term memory unaffected) - Made recognition errors : from a photo of glasses, described the circle and crossbar but guessed bicycle - Can orientate a stimulus e.g. can post a card manually but can’t match the slots orientation to a picture - Damage to ventral stream

Answer 72

RV : OPTIC ATAXIA - Damage to posterior parietal brain damage - Problems with visually guided action, visual perception normal - Problems inserting hand into orientated slot – would orientate hand wrong but COULD report orientation - Does not grasp objects properly with thumb/ index finger - Dorsal pathway impaired

Answer 73

- Area v4 : involved in colour, orientation and spatial frequency  Shows tuning for shapes of immediate complexity

Answer 74

perception of motion

Answer 75

- Number of different gyri : (inferior, middle, superior temporal gyrus), fusiform gyrus

Answer 76

- Areas found in ventral stream aid in face recognition o Occipital face area, fusiform gyrus o Cells have different tuning so will show differing activity to moving stimuli

Answer 77

- Magnocellular ganglion cells involved in motion processing in dorsal pathway - V5/MT important for motion processing

Answer 78

- Planned movements, spatial reasoning, attention

Answer 79

impairments in directing attention to parts of the visual field

Answer 80

- 400nm (blue) to 700nm (red)

Answer 81

- Achromatic info : important for fine detail, depth | - Chromatic info : important for colour

Answer 82

physically different lights that appear identical |  Can happen as there’s only 3 types of cone cells

Answer 83

achromatic night vision

Answer 84

daytime, achromatic and chromatic vision  Red cone : long wavelength sensitive  Green cone : middle-wavelength sensitive  Blue : short wavelength sensitive

Answer 85

two different lights resulting in the same cone outputs | o Once absorbed a photon produces the same change in photoreceptor output whatever its wavelength

Answer 86

how many photons have been absorbed

Answer 87

: No L cones |  Red/ greens not visible

Answer 88

: No M cones |  Red/greens not visible

Answer 89

: No S cones |  Mostly grey/ purple visible

Answer 90

- Red and green, yellow and blue cannot be perceived at the same time : opponent colours - Some ganglion cells are cone opponent

Answer 91

on temporal/ spatial factors (colour contrast/adaptation | - Colour and cognition are also connected (stroop effect)

Answer 92

finding which components of the system are impaired

Answer 93

- 75 year old male - Bilateral posterior cerebral artery stroke involving ventral occipital lobes including left fusiform and lingual gyrus and right fusiform gyrus - Also damage to left hippocampus and primary visual cortex - Upper right quadrant visual field loss : quadrantanopia - Visual object agnosia and prosopagnosia WITHOUT alexia - VOA : recognising objects - Prosopagnosia : face recognition - Alexia : problems with reading - Achromatopsia : colour blindness - No language comprehension/ production problems - No loss of semantic knowledge - Named 32.8% of drawn images (BORB) - 60% recognition of real objects (photorealistic) - 3% success in famous face naming - Perceptive integrative agnosia - Poor ability to line length match and size match = deficit in low level feature perception - Evidence of damage to lowlevel feature processing, perceptual integration, object constancy, accessing intact stored object knowledge

Answer 94

colour blindness

Answer 95

- Visual error : where response is visually similar to target - May arise from damage to perceptual system BEFORE access to semantic info, e.g structures supporting colour, shape, low level feature processing, perceptual integration, object constancy - Semantic : response is semantically related to target, but not visually similar - May arise from damage to perceptual system AFTER access to semantic info, e.g structures supporting LTM representations of objects, semantic system

Answer 96

- Difficulty with putting object parts together to see a whole spatial configuration - Inferotemporal lesions (following PCA stroke)

Answer 97

1. Active attention : top down, endogenous • Controlled by intensions/goals/expectations Passive attention : bottom-up, exogenous • Controlled by external stimuli 2. Focused attention : selective • Directed to one stimuli, amongst distracting stimuli Divided attention : directed to more than one stimulus at a time 3. External attention : directed to selection of sensory info Internal attention : directed to internally generated info 4. Overt attention : eyes directed to the object that is under focus of attention Covert attention : focus of attention is independent of where we are looking

Answer 98

sound segregation : listener has to decide which sound to attend to sound source of interest : once sound is detected attention must be directed/ kept towards source

Answer 99

when having a conversation at a party, background noise must be filtered out so attention can be focused on the conversation

Answer 100

different auditory message is presented to each ear and must focus attention then repeat the words - For the two messages to be heard there needs to be • Clear physical difference, e.g location, pitch

Answer 101

1. Series of channels which process different types of info 2. Info passes through the channels and reaches a buffer store 3. Filter then selects what info is to be further processed (based on properties e.g voice frequency, tone, pitch) 4. Selected stimuli reach consciousness, unselected stimuli are rejected CRITIQUES o Inflexible o Salient information can breakthrough into conscious processing o Breakthrough errors : heard words from irrelevant message if they were probable in context

Answer 102

- Anna Treisman 1. Info reaches buffer store by going through channels 2. The filter attenuates instead of eliminating unattended material. All stimuli pass through the attenuator, but not all have the same level of importance 3. Some stimuli reach threshold for detection more easily, so goes to semantic processing and memory level - Expected stimuli have low detection thresholds (top-down influence) - Unattended stimuli have high thresholds : get filtered out o Some unattended stimuli have lower thresholds  Words with important meaning • Words already processed in attended channel • Words primed by the content from attended channel - doesn't explain how semantic analysis works

Answer 103

attenuator model | filter model

Answer 104

deutsch and deutsch (1963) | norman (1968)

Answer 105

1. Deutsch & Deutsch’s (1963) o All stimuli reach full processing level and get recognised o Then selection is made based on semantic relevance for a reaction to be initiated o Only this info reaches consciousness

Answer 106

- Filter is as higher preconscious level - Unattended stimuli can influence behaviour of attended stimuli ADVANTAGES  No info is missed DISADVANTAGES  Very demanding, a lot of brain power wasted

Answer 107

- Sees attention as a system with limited capacity - Demanding tasks : lots of resources needed, so fewer resources will be left for other stimuli - Combines early/late selection models  Early selection : demanding task, high load  Late selection : easy task, low load TASK o Number of letters was manipulated (low vs high load) and interference created using distractor letters o Interference was greater in low load than high load  High load = no resources left, so distractor is not processed - More flexible and fluid - Capacity is determined by task demands, characteristics, previous experiences - Early selection : keeps assumption that perceptual capacity is limited - Late selection : assumption that perceptual processing is automatic

Answer 108

shiffrin and schneiders model (1977)

Answer 109

- Controlled processes : effortful, slow/error prone, controllable, attention required - Automatic processes : effortless, fast/few errirs, outside awareness, uncontrollable - Both controlled/ automatic processing are based on same cognitive processes and practice increases efficiency - Controlled to automatic processing is a gradual transition

Answer 110

- New unpractised tasks – controlled process  Rely on slow, effortful strategies  General algorithm used to solve problems - Familiar practiced tasks – Automatic process  Relevant memory traces are stored and reinforced  These can be retrieved when same stimulus is encountered - Example : learning timestables

Answer 111

- Supervisory attentional system modulates application of a schema to schema control units - Very detailed explanation -

Answer 112

the relative spatial structure of the input is preserved

Answer 113

- Contralateral : on the opposite side | - Ipsilateral : on the same side

Answer 114

- Tendency to ignore objects in hemispace opposite to the lesion (contralesional)

Answer 115

line bisection test, line cancellation, visual search tasks

Answer 116

- Space centred neglect : affects perception of locations in space

Answer 117

- Object-based neglect : neglect of an object, even if position has changed

Answer 118

- Perceptual neglect : neglect of stimuli in the perceptual input

Answer 119

- Representational neglect : neglect of internally generated image

Answer 120

- Plato : memory is like a tablet of wax - Seen as a passive store for centuries - In the last century research has identified : encoding, storage, retrieval, info processing

Answer 121

removal or destruction of a body part

Answer 122

o HM : ablation of right/left medial temporal lobe (including two thirds of hippocampus/amygdala) o After surgery HM couldn’t store new memories into LTM, could perform tasks requiring STM

Answer 123

Murdock (1962) o Used a free recall test – participants had to remember lists of 10/15/20/30/40 words o Presentation time for each was 1s/2s o Recall was immediate o Found a serial recall curve with primacy/recency effects

Answer 124

o Free recall with lists of 10/20/30 words o Two main conditions : no retention interval, recall after 15/30 second delay filled in with counting task o Presence of retention interval led to recency effect being eliminated

Answer 125

- Architecture : way the memory system is organised | - Processes : activities within memory system

Answer 126

1. Input is received 2. Input in turn generates cognitive processing 3. Some behaviour is produced (output) - Control processes regulate/control flow of info between components

Answer 127

```  Sensory register :  Long term store :  Control processes :  Response generator  Short term store ```

Answer 128

stimuli input → sensory register → short term store (rehearsal buffer) → long term store → response generator → response output

Answer 129

o Iconic memory : visual information | o Echoic memory : auditory information

Answer 130

- All info acquired through learning - Info stored permanently - Infinite capacity - Insensitive to interference

Answer 131

- Processes info from all modalities - Organises info to produce behaviour - Sensitive to interference - Needs constant rehearsal - Forgetting is rapid without rehearsal

Answer 132

- Control input of the short term store (filter amount/quality of information coming from sensory registers - Control how much info/which info is retrieved from long term store - Selects type of cognitive operations applied to info in short term store

Answer 133

- Items are encoded in LTM as a result of stay in STM o Items can be processed in STM without moving to LTM o Type of rehearsing is important, not amount - Short term store considered to process unitary information o Short term deals with at least two types of information  Verbal info and visuospatial info - ST store can be considered a unit - Resources engaged by one process are not available to another process (not the case)  Baddeley (1986) : concurrent visual task doesn’t impair performance of verbal task

Answer 134

- Decay theory : fading of memory traces over time | - Interference theory : due to interferences caused by neural events

Answer 135

o Proactive : previously learned items interfere with learning of new items o Retroactive : opposite influence from new items to already leant items  Most likely to occur when items are semantically similar (McGeoch & McDonald, 1931)

Answer 136

PHONOLOGICAL LOOP - Speech based info - Two components : phonological store o Phonological store  Holds items in a passive way, either acoustic or phonological format  Activation of items decreases over time  Information lost if not refreshed (happens after 2 seconds)

Answer 137

- Sets items activity back to maximum - Auditory or visual input o Visual input : recoded into phonological equivalent by an orthographic to phonological translator o Auditory input : passes a phonological detector in charge of detecting words - Output : spoken words

Answer 138

- Holds/manipulates visuospatial information - Only ¾ items held simultaneously - Items can decay - Two subcomponents : visual cache and inner scribe o Visual cache : holds visuospatial information o Inner scribe : carries out cognitive operations on the information (e.g rotating oject) - Separate mechanisms for visual/spatial format information

Answer 139

- Added in 2003 - Replaced central executive for coordinating between the two slave systems (VSS, PL) - Aims to explain we perceive things as wholes, not discrete parts - Integration of info in single percepts is done here - Integrates info from LTM - Place where integrated info is held/ available - to consciousness - Span of episodic buffer reflects performance of working memory

Answer 140

central executive, long term memory, short term memory o Central executive : allocates attention to task relative stimuli/ monitor voluntary processing o Long term memory : central component, memory records have a level of activation which reflects accessibility to consciousness o Short term store : set of records available for processing by CE

Answer 141

1. Set of long term memory records that are not activated are outside the scope of CE active processes 2. Set of activated memory records that constitute the ST store that are not focussed on 3. The set of items under focus of attention that benefit from cognitive operations

Answer 142

``` SENSORY MEMORY - direct represenentation huge capacity - capacity : less than 500ms for visual, 2s for acoustic - decays over time ```

Answer 143

SM - STM : explicit encoding | SM- LTM : implicit encoding

Answer 144

elaborative

Answer 145

- Monitors attentional processes (dividing/switching/focussing attention) - Controls info flow within/between PL and VSS - Controls info arriving from senses and supervises retrieval from memory

Answer 146

- Keep trace of sensations until info moves to ST store - Holds modality specific information for few hundred milliseconds o Iconic memory : visual information o Echoic memory : auditory information - Info not accessible - Large memory capacity

Answer 147

- in lab experiments/ real voting behaviour, physically attractive candidates get more votes - people infer invisible characteristics (trustworthiness, competence, intelligence) from features (height, symmetry, facial cues - blemishes, jaw) - "vote for me" photos looked more at the person than "don't vote for him" photos - manipulates voters

Answer 148

E1 : more attributes were provided for categories at the basic and subordinate levels (best at nonbiological taxonomies) - E2 : motor programmes : ppts coded the motor patterns used to interact with the same 90 objects) - hard to code people's responses - E3 : visually similar category members : high overlap for basic level category (dog), low overlap for superordinate level category (animal)

Answer 149

- E4 : identifying averaged shapes : superordinate categories : difficulty in producing stimuli/ inshape variability - E5 : looked at whether hearing the name of the category aided in picture detection - decided if a picture of an object was shown on right or left side, abstract picture was shown on the other side - basic and subordinate condition had significantly better detection - E6: participants heard a label at the superordinate, basic or subordinate then saw two images - made a speeded decision about whether the pictures were identical or two different objects - priming was only significant for basic/ subordinate level names - superordinate were no help at all

Answer 150

E7 : easier to verify the basic level name for pictures of objects - saw a label at any 3 of the levels then a colour photo - made decisions about whether label/photo matched or belonged to different categories - reaction times in were faster for basic level labels for true/ false decisions - E8 : adults/ children chose the pair of pictures that went together - sorting at the basic level was perfect from age 3-4 up - took longer for superordinate level to be acquired : 4 years - E9 : children/ adults sorted 16 pictures from 4 basic level categories into groups that went together - 5/6 year olds : superordinate sorting was worse than basic level sorting - 8 year olds : superordinate/ basic level sorting was perfect

Answer 151

- E10 : what level do adults prefer to use - named some or all of the 54 pictures from taxonomies used in E1 - adults prefered to name at the basic level - E11: analysed which concrete nouns were used by a child from her speech corpus - prefered to label at the basic level - E12 : level most likely to have a sign assigned in ASL - level most likely is basic level

Answer 152

- language has many levels of analysis - structure : medium of transmission - phonetics - phonology grammar - morphology - syntax meaning (semantics) - lexicon - discourse

Answer 153

- language is not constant : words are invented and used in different frequencies over time - also a change in the meaning of words : e.g gay = happy, prostitute in 1800s, homosexuals in 1920s (1200-2000)

Answer 154

descriptive grammar : used in language pedagogical grammar : used for language teaching prescriptive grammar : rules for correct use of grammar reference grammar : comprehensive description for researchers theoretical grammar : universals in grammar traditional grammar : greek and roman grammar

Answer 155

- correct way to speak - influenced by vocab, grammar and accent - 1794 : Murrey : published grammar prescribing the use of English - 1761 : Priestley : custom of speaking is the original and only just standard of any language

Answer 156

- word order is given in each language e.g english = subject verb object

Answer 157

- views of word meaning - iconic relationships : words - objects - symbolic relationships : words - concepts - objects - behaviouralist view : stimuli - word - responses - the same words can mean very different things : Ogden and Richards (1923) found 16 meanings of mean

Answer 158

- 5400 words in english created a year

Answer 159

- use of signaling and chemistry, e.g honeybee recruitment dancce - communication by voice e.g parrots and speech prodcution, dogs/cats can understand speech, whales/dolphins have complex communication - communication with obvious purpose e.g predator call by vervet monkeys differs depending on danger

Answer 160

- language is spoken and heard

Answer 161

- those in range can hear the vocalisation and are able to pinpoint where the speaker is

Answer 162

- spoken language fades not long after it is produced (doesn't include tracks, recordings or writing)

Answer 163

- humans can produce/receive any message | - courtship behaviours are sex dependant

Answer 164

- humans are capable of monitoring and reflecting on our speech - animals cannot monitor their courtship behaviour

Answer 165

- humans have a dedicated communication system | - e.g dog panting can communicate that it is hot, but it is a physiological signal and not one purely for communication

Answer 166

- language conveys a specific meaning that is associated to real world concepts or situations - alarm call associated with predator

Answer 167

- nature of reality and signal are not linked - no reason "dog" is word for dog, no reason why a cry in vervet monkeys signals a snake - but different groups all use the same signal e.g honeybee waggle-dance with direct reflection of physical parameters

Answer 168

- speech uses a small set of discrete tokens - speech is perceived categorically : 40 ms timing difference in vocal cord vibration is the only different in pin and bin - waggledance has a specific speed

Answer 169

- language can deal with concepts that are not the present tense - vervet monkeys do not communicate about yesterdays eagle, waggledance is only displaced in space not time

Answer 170

- humans can use a set of symbols to create an infinite range of meaning - can also invent new words

Answer 171

- language is taught, not inherited | - bee dances are innate

Answer 172

- sounds in language must be combined to form units which have meaning - bee dances/ animal calls don't combine meaningless elements to make a larger meaningful element

Answer 173

INDEX VS SYMBOLS (DEACON) - indexical communication (alarm calls) : a sound or sign represents an object or schema - symbolic communication in humans : meaning is extracted from a combination of signals, not singular signs

Answer 174

VOCALISATION LANGUAGE Indexical symbolic - given sound stands for something - given sound stands for many things - monkey call indicates predator - explicit, learnt code for entity - laughter indicates mental state - context dependent (grammar) Involuntary Voluntary - oops - have to learn language - impossible to fake - have complete control - contagious - easy to learn - hard to learn (index based) - limited to scope - unlimited scope

Answer 175

- chimps cannot be taught human speech as they dont have suitable vocal tracts but can be taught sign language (Gardner and Gardner 1969) - can put signs together productively : used signs for water bird as swans - however takes generous interpretation of gestures to say chimps have learned a lot of words - Nim Chimpsky : chimp could put together two-word sentences that followed a predictable word-order (e.g more drink) - 85% of sentences with more followed this order - however isn't evidence of productivity : nim couldve learned the sequences as wholes from his trainer - longer utterances don't obey rules of syntax - kanzi : bonobo, reared in a human like environment and had a keypad to communicate - good comprehension, could comprehend novel sequences - production could be subject to over-interpretation - 95% of utterances were requests for food/activities

Answer 176

- humans have evolved an innate universal grammar, teaching chimps to use a few words doesnt mean they're doing something similar to us - built in mentalese : humans have a language of thought that came before spoken language - language is our ability to translate mentalese into strings of words - only humans take part in collaborative acts that require understanding other's intentions

Answer 177

- many graphemes that describe distinct sounds - phoneme : speech sound - some phonemes always need letter groups e.g th, ng,sh - often the same letters represent multiple sounds

Answer 178

- how words are used in a word | - English is non-transparent

Answer 179

- hypothesis : if we read left to right, we should be able to observe eye movements going left to right - method : tracked eye movements while bilinguals read aloud words in native language L1 and second language - stimuli : 160 words (60 pseudo words) - results : 25-30% of the letter in looked at first - German is more transparent than French - French L1 learners look 40-45% in, French L2 look around 25%-30% - German L1/L2 learners look 25%-35% way in - look a quarter into words, not at first letter

Answer 180

- rayner et al - need 10 fixations to read a sentence containing 40 plus letters - changing the beginning letter had the highest number of fixations (13) - only look at about 10-13 out of 45 letters

Answer 181

- suprasegmental features of speech - intonation, stress/accent, tone, pauses, rate, duration - phonemes are basic building blocks

Answer 182

- changes in pitch (fundamental freq) over time - a statement will have a falling pitch contour - a question has a rising contour - intonation is language specific

Answer 183

- refers to length/pitch/volume of syllable | - isolated words un declarative intonation have higher pitch peaks on the stressed syllable

Answer 184

- particular syllables may have accents which change meaning of the word : accented languages like japanese - tone language : each syllable is marked by one of four/five tones with distinct meanings

Answer 185

- pause - segmentation cue - strong stress signal - rate - the average number of speech segments per unit time (4 syllables a second) - duration - relative duration of segments shows important semantic meaning

Answer 186

- distinct sounds in a language that permit contrasts - abstract representations (e.g categories) but not actual sounds - e.g phoneme /p/ is a category of similar p sounds (phones) - allophones : phones that sound slightly different but swapping them doesn't make it a different word - grapheme : unit of written language - we group sounds that are objectively different into classes and ignore within class differences (very effective, we cannot hear them) - we also learn unconscious rules for combining phonemes into words

Answer 187

- 3 main types of phonemes 1. ) Vowels - periods of resonance (uninterrupted air flow out of mouth in a steady way for long period) - all vowels are oral in english - sound determined by tongue position/ lip rounding - always voiced 2. ) Consonants - produced quickly/ dynamically - closure/ partial closure of airway 3. ) diphthongs - speech gestures involving the transition between two vowels

Answer 188

1.) - bilabial stop : with lips velar stops (soft palate) alveolar stops (ridge behind upper teeth) 2.) - fricatives : partially obscured airflow to produce rushing sound - place of articulation 3.) affricatives : mixture of stop followed by fricative 4.) nasals : used in languages like french

Answer 189

"We identify vowels by their formant frequencies (Primarily F1 and F2) BUT because the actual frequency is determined by sex of the speaker, size of the vocal tract etc…, it’s the RELATIVE position of the formants to each other that is the basis for recognizing the vowel sound" - Vowels can be perceived in isolation, based on their formant frequencies - For consonants this is virtually impossible; they’re produced much more briefly in broad-band “bursts” of acoustic energy. - If we take a sound such as /ba/ and isolate the consonant, it doesn’t sound like a /b/, but a “chirp”

Answer 190

- Most of the information about a consonant is, in fact, encoded in the vowel that follows

Answer 191

- Every instance of a phoneme encountered will be slightly different 1) Due to differences between speakers (sex, age, etc…) 2) Because of contextual variation: A given phoneme is produced differently depending on the vowel that follows it (e.g., /d/ before i or u – see next slide). - Despite this, we perceive phonemes CATEGORICALLY (i.e., we perceive phoneme as either /d/ or /t/ never “something in between”.

Answer 192

- Excellent discrimination across boundary | - Poor discrimination within boundary

Answer 193

1. Voice Onset Time (VOT) How can you tell the difference between tIp and dIp? There’s a gap (voice onset time) between the end of the t or d and the beginning of the voiced vowel I. - This gap (VOT) is about 60ms longer after an unvoiced consonant (t) than a voiced consonant (d) - Word initial voicing in oral stops /di-ti/ : VOT duration of preceding vowel longer for voiced - Word final voicing in oral stops /ab-ap/ : duration of preceding vowel - Place in nasal vowels /ma-na/: start /direction of second formant start /direction of F2 - Voicing in final fricatives /as-az/: duration of preceding vowel duration of preceding vowel (shorter = voiceless) - Place in fricatives /sa-sha/ : noise frequency noise frequency (/s/ about 4Khz, /sh/ about 2.5) - Liquids /ra-la/: F3 frequency . . . F3 frequency of preceding vowel lower for /r/ than /l/)

Answer 194

- Likely to “hear” what you expect (“top-down processing). Phonemic restoration effect (Warren & Warren, 1970): - It was found the [COUGH]eel was on the shoe

Answer 195

- Cattell (1886) : takes twice as long to read words that have no connection - context effect helps us read sentences/syllables/words faster

Answer 196

- Gough's model : explains sequence of events during the first second of reading - key features : linear model (visual input - character - phonetic tape - lexicon - semantics - understanding) - built around character recognition - model is wrong : don't look at every single letter - we can read words that are partially occluded as we use context to fill in the "caps" to read the words

Answer 197

- word level = letter level = feature level - visual input - bottom up model would predict that each interpretations of word are not equally likely when word is ambiguous - rumelhart : instead of going bottom to top, there are multiple levels of representation and all levels are looked at simultaneously - we simultaneously activate brain areas that encode high level representations : semantics (e.g there is a car) and low level visually driven input - later on, neurones linking low level and high level features activate as they get positive input - then neurones with net positive input turn on and turn off alternatives

Answer 198

- perception is both partially top down and bottom up | - perception is driven by external input and expectation

Answer 199

- Dorsal pathway : perception for action - how and where - Ventral pathway : perception for recognition - however we don't know how taxonomies are processed/ represented in the ventral visual cortex

Answer 200

Method - Study 1 : 2 behavioural experiments as precursors to 3rd fMRI experiment - taxonomies : natural and man made - 32 subordinate level categories - 32 examples of each subordinate level category - procedure : compared speed and accuracy when word is labeled at superordinate (e.g biological), basic (e.g flower), subordinate level (e.g orchid) - results : reaction times faster at the basic level (replicating rosch)

Answer 201

- study 2 : speeded decision is 2 pictures show an object from the same subordinate level or different - on half the different trials thje objects different at only the basic level (e.g flower and dog). on half they were from different superordinate categories (e.g biological flower and shoe) - results : in two-dimensional solution each of basic categories formed separate clusters - first MDS dimension separated natural and manmade (superordinate) - second MDS dimension separated dogs and shoes from flowers and planes

Answer 202

- study 3 : fMRI test REGIONS OF INTEREST give the regions of interest in Iordan's fMRI study - 4 early visual areas - lateral occipital complex - transoccipital sulcus - parahippocampal place area - retrosplenial cortex - fusiform face area - results : strong subordinate/ basic level representations found in all regions of interest - especially at subordinate level in V1/V2/V3v and at basic level at later stages of visual processing in lateral occipital cortex

Answer 203

# define haemodynamic response - also conducted multivoxel pattern analysis (MVPA) of fMRI data - used correlation classifiier to try to predict categorises from the haemodynamic response (the patterns of activation detected by fMRI) at each level - category info was significantly above chance at all taxonomic levels with highest decoding accuracy (ability to predict the category shown based only on haemodynamic data) - decoding was better at basic level in LOC, FFA and RSC

Answer 204

-repeat : repeat the first study but with three new taxonomies with more appropriate superordinate categories (natural/ man made not sufficient) and background was removed from images - taxonomies : vehicles furniture musical instruments - 36 subordinate level categories, 40 examples - match to category method used (same as E1) - results : categories identified faster at basic level - same-different subordinate level categorisation method used (E2) - fMRI also replicated - results : evidence for subordinate stronger in V1/V2/V3v/hV4 subordinate and basic similarly strong in later higher level visual areas MVPA : decoding accuracy was better at basic level only in object selective LOC

Answer 205

- basic level may be favoured as it is an emergent property of visual system - emergent property : something a complex system has but individual components of a system have

Answer 206

- in lab experiments/ real voting behaviour, physically attractive candidates get more votes - people infer invisible characteristics (trustworthiness, competence, intelligence) from features (height, symmetry, facial cues - blemishes, jaw) - "vote for me" photos looked more at the person than "don't vote for him" photos - manipulates voters

Answer 207

- E1 : more attributes were provided for categories at the basic and subordinate levels (best at non biological taxonomies) - E2 : motor programmes : ppts coded the motor patterns used to interact with the same 90 objects) - hard to code people's responses - E3 : visually similar category members : high overlap for basic level category (dog), low overlap for superordinate level category (animal)

Answer 208

- E4 : identifying averaged shapes : superordinate categories : difficulty in producing stimuli/ in shape variability - E5 : looked at whether hearing the name of the category aided in picture detection - decided if a picture of an object was shown on right or left side, abstract picture was shown on the other side - basic and subordinate condition had significantly better detection - E6: participants heard a label at the superordinate, basic or subordinate then saw two images - made a speeded decision about whether the pictures were identical or two different objects - priming was only significant for basic/ subordinate level names - superordinate were no help at all

Answer 209

- E7 : easier to verify the basic level name for pictures of objects - saw a label at any 3 of the levels then a colour photo - made decisions about whether label/photo matched or belonged to different categories - reaction times in were faster for basic level labels for true/ false decisions - E8 : adults/ children chose the pair of pictures that went together - sorting at the basic level was perfect from age 3-4 up - took longer for superordinate level to be acquired : 4 years - E9 : children/ adults sorted 16 pictures from 4 basic level categories into groups that went together - 5/6 year olds : superordinate sorting was worse than basic level sorting - 8 year olds : superordinate/ basic level sorting was perfect

Answer 210

- E10 : what level do adults prefer to use - named some or all of the 54 pictures from taxonomies used in E1 - adults preferred to name at the basic level - E11: analysed which concrete nouns were used by a child from her speech corpus - preferred to label at the basic level - E12 : level most likely to have a sign assigned in ASL - level likely is basic level

Answer 211

- some stimuli trigger automatic, stable, reproducible responses e.g babies grasping - learning mechanisms : - classical conditioning - instrumental conditioning - non-associative learning - consolidation

Answer 212

- innate, doesn't depend on prior learning - tightly associated with the unconditional stimulus - elicits an unconditional response

Answer 213

- bell becomes conditioned stimulus - salivating becomes conditioned response - associative learning

Answer 214

- conditions must be met : - temporal simultaneity : presentation of the neutral and unconditional stimulus - necessary to repeat presentations - can take quicker under some conditions e.g emotions

Answer 215

- learning through trial and error - also called instrumental conditioning - reinforcers : stimuli that strengthen probability of behaviour - often material rewards, can be social

Answer 216

- primary reinforcers : stimuli whose meaning is not dependent on prior learning - determined genetically/ inherited - can effect response of learning - used to teach phonemes to autistic children

Answer 217

- punishers : stimuli that lower probability of behaviours occurrence - can be material/social

Answer 218

- discriminative stimulus : pressing lever only has an effect on environment when specific conditions are met (red light is on)

Answer 219

- positive reinforcement : give good things to increase probability of behaviour occurring - negative reinforcement : take away bad things to increase probability of behaviour occurring

Answer 220

- positive punishment : give bad things to decrease probability of behaviour - negative punishment : take away good things to decrease the probability of behaviour

Answer 221

- homme et al : rewarded desired behaviour (staying quiet) with running around - class was calm a few days after

Answer 222

- skinner (1948) - pigeons delivered food ever 15s - pigeons began displaying weird behaviours : turning around in circles, brushing head - associated behaviour they had at the first delivery of food - how superstitions are born

Answer 223

- implicit memory : graf and schacter (1985) - knowledge without awareness - previous experiences facilitate performance on a task that does not require intentional recollection of the experiences - defined by the task : observation of improved performance without declarative knowledge is explained by implicit memory

Answer 224

- relations within the stimulus material affect performance, participants not aware - lewicki (1986) : participants get 6 pictures with descriptions of depicted person - people described as kind and helpful or capable and effective (description correlated to hair length) - decisions in line with previous experience need more time - participants learned the co-variations

Answer 225

- central task in learning to read : associating graphemes with phonemes - artificial grammar : rule used to construct the stimuli (unknown to participant) - participants shown strings of letters that are constructed based on the rule - second phase : asked to identify whether stimuli are constructed according to rules or not - dyslexic children performed less well than typically developing children

Answer 226

- acquisition of procedural knowledge without intention to learn - participants not aware they have acquired this - show strong performance effects - participants performance increases without them knowing why : brain learns rule governing stimuli

Answer 227

- memory for events of ones life | - autobiographical memory and episodic memory overlap

Answer 228

- infantile amnesia : for first 3 years - reminiscence bump : between 15 and 25 (novelty and stability) - retention function : for memories up to 20 years olds, with older memories less likely to be recalled

Answer 229

- special neural mechanism may be activated by such memories | - may be result of ordinary memory mechanisms with more efficient encoding

Answer 230

- refer to actions/[performance - only require a few resources - operate automatically

Answer 231

- cessation of behaviour in response to a repeated, harmless stimulus - form of discriminative learning : occurs when a stimulus is not relevant/ harmful - Colombo et al. : attention derived from habituation predicts performance - sensitisation : a magnification of reflexes in response to a meaningful stimulation

Answer 232

a magnification of reflexes in response to a meaningful stimulation

Answer 233

- improving ability to distinguish between objects - oscillatory gamma band activity : neural synchrony that allows neurons to co-ordinate activity to perform a perceptual task - perception GBA : correlates with recognition of complex patterns - musician's brains respond differently to timbres : brain rewires itself to better process the stimuli

Answer 234

- experimental performance improved after each session but the largest improvement was found after a night's sleep - chronotype did not affect the memories after a night's sleep

Answer 235

- Baddeley & Longman (1978) : performance in a task (incl nights sleep in between tasks) increases with hours of practice

Answer 236

- performance follows a pattern as a function of trials (rapid improvement at first, then slower improvement) - research shows signs of recognition of mother's voice at early age (ability increases with time)

Answer 237

- Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) - uses magnetic field to change electric activity in neurons - creates phantom sensations - creates virtual lesions

Answer 238

Functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) - BOLD signal captured by absorption of infrrared light - can show higher level functions : morale, values, decision making - can see results in real time

Answer 239

- assume all previously experienced exemplars of a category are stored - no abstraction of a central tendency - may be large storage requirements in LTM compared to prototype accounts

Answer 240

- a stimulus is usually compared to the most similar saved exemplar - if it is sufficiently similar to one/more stored exemplars it is categorised as a category member - representation of stimulus is then added to category - slower naming of atypical examples

Answer 241

- typicality doesnt always co-vary with membership as predicted by theories - typicality effects have been found for fuzzy categories AND rule-defined categories - not clear how categories represented as exemplars can be organised into hierarchies (these theories don't show basic level advantage)

Answer 242

- assume that categories have a core definition that explains appearance/function etc of category members - categories are defined by common sense explanations - explanations include perceptual info (e.g dogs bark) and general semantic knowledge (dog barks are warnings) - we choose the theory that best explains the pattern of features of an item - explains fuzzy category boundaries as some exemplars fit well into more than one category theory

Answer 243

+ stimulated useful experimental research and show important background info that is ignored by other theories - more vague/ less explicit than prototype/ exemplar theories so are harder to test

Answer 244

- expertise : people being good at solving problems similar to those they have experienced before - problem solving : involves people trying to solve novel problems that rely on domain-general knowledge such as flexible, general heuristics (e.g using the shorter of two alternatives)

Answer 245

- tower of hanoi : people do quick moves then pause, so they divide the problem into subgoals with pauses between - egan and greeno (1974) : people were trained on 3 disk Hanoi problem then transferred to 4 disk problem - initially they used general heuristics (don't reverse previous move) - with more experience they developed specific strategies for dealing with tower (learned specific heuristics)

Answer 246

- problems need to be well-defined to be solved using problem-spaces - background knowledge is often imprecise to hard to analyse problems this way - often real word problems need lots of general background knowledge and have ill defined goals

Answer 247

- chi, feltovich and glaser (1983) : physics experts were faster and more accurate than novices at solving physics problems - experts spent longer analysing/understanding problems - experts categorised problems based on deep similarity (theroetical concepts), novices categorised on surface similarity

Answer 248

- initial state (position of pieces at start) and goal are well specified but there are many vast numbers of intermediate states - chess experts make better moves : faster at recognising the type of problem, have more solutions stored - win games by being quicker at retrieving better moves from memory

Answer 249

- degroot (1956) : experts recalled chess piece positions from real games much better than novices (only in actual configurations, not random spaces) - chase & simon (1973) : experts needed less viewing time to remember position of pieces and had larger encoded chunks (But do not have better general memory) - gobet & simon (2000) : learn many configurations from previous games and reproduce this info when playing - brilliance at chess is domain specific : weak correlation between chess ability and intelligence, amount of practice more important

Answer 250

- declarative memory : used by novices, used to solve novel problems, explicit, flexible, slow - feeds into working memory - procedural memory : productions aquaried with practice, domain specifc, implicit, fast - becomes more important than declarative memory as we become experts - working memory : stores active info from declarative/procedural memory

Answer 251

- skill acquisition = 1. gradually storing/ finetuning chunks of domain specific knowledge by combining info from declarative memory to procedural memory 2. composition - series of productions combined into a single, large production

Answer 252

- as knowledge becomes less declarative it is - less verbalisable (explicit to implicit) - more automatic - less effortful

Answer 253

- experts can read situations quicker and better than novices, and so are better at predicting what might happen so can prepare a good response

Answer 254

- later stages of serve in cricket was occluded so experts/ novices could predict where the ball would go - temporal occlusion : occuled at different times of the serve explain the occlusion paradigm 2 - spatial occlusion : hid parts of the bowler's body give the results of the occlusion paradigm experiment - experts in both racquet sports/cricket used the same cues as novices PLUS early body movements to predict ball trajectory

Answer 255

- eriksson (1994,2006) : deliberate practice was necessary and largely sufficient to become an expert - deliberate practise : - be repetitive - be challenging - be monitored so useful feedback is given - allow for correction of mistakes - may work by reducing the need to use our limited working memory by improving retrieval and storage from long term memory

Answer 256

- will not occur if youre - doing something for fun (not concentrating on task) - trying to do your best (focussing too much on succeeding) - amount of deliberate practice can predict performance for chess, musicians, sports players

Answer 257

- sloboda et al (1996) : best musicians needed as much practisse to reach the same level as weaker muscians (nurture not nature) - "child prodigies" may just be trained/ encouraged from a young age

Answer 258

- balance between nature/nurture depends on environment | - a fairer world with more equal opportunities would allow nature to be emphasized

Answer 259

- Discrimination : distinguishing between individual exemplars - Generalisation : group perceptually different exemplars into common categories

Answer 260

- object constancy : consistently categorising objects to achieve invariance when the object can appear different from a different view - examples of variation in input : depth rotations, plane rotations, size, position, lighting changes - typicality : distance in representational space of an exemplar to the category prototype

Answer 261

- four types of theories of categorisation : - classical/defining features theories - prototype theories - exemplar theories - explanation-based theories

Answer 262

- assume concepts are defined by a rule specifying the necessary features which are enough to decide if an item belongs to a category - membership to the category is binary : either belongs to category or doesn't at all

Answer 263

- Bruner et al (1956) - important role of memory and strategy - memory : people were better at working out rules if they could see all cards at once or could use pen/paper - role of strategy : people try different strategies depending on preference /abilities/ time available/ short term memory constraints - people learnt explicit rules that defined the concepts - disadvantages : findings don't generalise - concepts were predefined

Answer 264

- may be grey areas where although someone may fit the category, they would not be defined as such (e.g the pope fits in to the category of "bachelor", but would not be defined as such)

Answer 265

- may be hard to identify the necessary defining features for a category - Rosch and Mervis (1975) : members of a category just resemble each other and the boundaries are fuzzy - McCloskey and Glucksberg (1978) : people are inconsistent with categorising objects

Answer 266

- categories do not stably exist in the external world | - people disagreed with each other and categories were inconsistent

Answer 267

- assume concepts are arranged into hierarchy hierarchical networks assume : 1. category inclusion relations - a category at one level can only belong to a single category at the next higher level 2. transitive relations - a category membership at a higher level dictates membership at lower levels - however people don't agree that a butter knife is a tool, but a knife is a tool

Answer 268

- highest level : subordinate level (granny smith apple, Siamese cat) basic level (apple, cat) lowest level : superordinate level (fruit, animal) - the basic level is preferred by adults : objects are also named faster at the basic level than at the subordinate/ superordinate level ASIC LEVEL (Rosch) - cognitive economy : exemplars of basic level categories share specific features, which distinguishes them from similar categories at the basic level - the most efficient way for the visual system to initially identify objects - labels give most important information for little effort - superordinate level labels contain too little information - subordinate level labels distinguish between very similar categories (e.g using appearance and behaviour to distinguish between Siamese and Persian cats) but extra work is needed for very little useful information

Answer 269

- Tanaka and Taylor (1991) : experts (but not novices) were as fast as identifying even typical category members at the subordinate level as at the basic level - also listed more features of subordinate categories than novices and were more likely to use subordinate names than novices

Answer 270

Explicit coding : consciously think about something | implicit coding : learning without consciously thinking about something

Answer 271

- consolidation : process where a neural trace is strengthened until it becomes stable - factors for consolidation : exposure, intension, depth of processing, skill acquisition, interferences

Answer 272

- the number of times something has been exposed to a person is not enough for coding e.g coin details - penny test : only 41% got the coin design right

Answer 273

- Hyde and Jenkins (1973) : half of participants were told they would have to later recall words from a list - what's important is the level of processing words, not intention

Answer 274

- Craik & Lockhart (1972) : make distinction between shallow (superficial) and deep processing (activates related knowledge) - Craik & Tulving (1975) : participants processed lists of words in different conditions, follows by unexpected recall task - structural : capital letters etc - phonemic : rhyming words - category - sentence : does it fit in a sentence - structural task had worse recognition percentages, sentence and category had the highest - shows importance of depth of processing over intention / exposure

Answer 275

- follows power law of practice (learning curve) - tells us performance relates to training - more and more training is needed to keep learning at the same rate

Answer 276

- retroactive : new memory interferes with old info | - proactive : old memory interferes with new info

Answer 277

- interference can be due to formal - acoustic confusion - interference due to semantic content - closely-related concepts - Lutz et al : no distractors, phonetic distractors and semantic distractors used - interpolated task used to stop rehearsal - delays varied between study and test - phonetic distractors more efficient at interfering in short periods

Answer 278

- info in working memory accesses LTM - neural evidence shows activation of knowledge above a threshold is important RECOGNITION - means to know again : ability to match perceptual input with knowledge WORKING MEMORY - conscious request of info

Answer 279

- shephard (1967) - recognition task : identification of present item as known/unknown - performance in recognition tasks usually better than in recall tasks - recognition performance remains high even after long time (e.g recognising class mates after 20 years) - issues : distractors can falsify recognition, new stimuli may be considered known if they are similar to old stimuli

Answer 280

- tulving & thomson (1973) : encoding specificity principle - cues used during intial learning can help later retrieval more than novel cues as they were stored alongside with memory of experience - godden & baddeley (1975) : words learned onland are better recalled on land, words learned underwater are better recalled underwater

Answer 281

- knowledge used to reconstruct events during recall - mcdermott (1996) : ppts learned word list, then had recognition test with old words from middle of the list and a new word ( sleep) - delayed recognition test two days later - in delayed recall there was higher recognition of lure word than studied words - ppts probably activate the concept sleep when hearing words - loftus and palmer : group who heard the word "smashed" predicted higher speed at collision than the "contacted" group

Answer 282

- Collins & Quillian (1969) : hierarchical network - sub-concepts have all features of super-concepts plus differentiating features - evidence : "a canary is a bird" (1160ms), "a canary is an animal" (1240ms), "a canary has skin" (1480s) : depends upon distance between nodes in network - problems : typicality effects cannot be explained, additional assumption is necessary - hierarchy does not always work - ppts are faster to decide an ostrich is an animal than a bird

Answer 283

- semantic networks - concepts in memory linked to each other - concepts are the nodes - semantic relations are the links - problems : vague assumptions only conclude that there are links, if one unit primes another unit activation spread not clarified : after some time is whole network active activation may fade with distance to source

Answer 284

- Inductive reasoning : probable conclusions taken from available statements - Deductive reasoning : conclusions follow from the premises

Answer 285

- Wason (1966,1968) : selection task o Most chose E or 4 (4 doesn’t bring new info) o Choose 4 as if the rule is correct, there will be a vowel on the other side (however, doesn’t necessarily work in both directions, e.g vowel with even number does mean there may be an even number with a vowel o Need to turn over 7 to falsify the rule (e.g if there’s a vowel, the rule is wrong) - Shows confirmation bias : human tendency to confirm views rather than falsify

Answer 286

- If someone is in the bar drinking beer, they must be over 18 - Four people : 1 drinking beer, 1 drinking coke, 1 over 18 and 1 under 18 o Should check person drinking beer and person looking under 18 o ¾ participants get answer, 1/10 get the abstract version

Answer 287

- Selection task is a conditional problem - Uses two logic rules : modus ponens and modus tollens o Modus ponens : if p then q  P is true, so q is true  E.g if it rains, there are clouds o Modus tollens  If p then q, q is not true therefore p is not true  E.g if it rains, then there are clouds  There are no clouds, therefore it does not rain - Modus ponens/ tollens are the only valid inference rules with conditional problems

Answer 288

- Karl Popper (1968) o Falsification is only way to test validity of theories - Hume’s problem of induction o Not possible to prove a scientific theory as future data may refute it

Answer 289

- Aim to prove theory wrong - If we want to conclude that X causes Y we need o Rule of agreement: if X is followed by Y, then X is sufficient for Y and could also be the cause o Rule of difference: if Y does not occur when X does not occur, then X is necessary for Y to occur

Answer 290

- Given sequence 2, 4 6 and asked to find rule behind sequence - Participants formed the rule “sequence of numbers increasing by two”, and can give their own sequences, and corrected by experimenter - Actual rule : any sequence of increasing numbers o None tried to falsifiy using sequences like 1, 7, 32

Answer 291

- Two groups : pro and anti death penalty - Read two studies with two independent variables : design (longitudinal/cross-section) and outcome (supports/doesn’t support) - Flaws were highlighted - Participants thought studies consistent with their views had better designs and were more convincing, failed to notice weaknesses o Increase original belief

Answer 292

- Barnum statements: vague statements that can fit almost anyone

Answer 293

- Comes from classic economics - People take all available information into account - They give a value (utility) to each option and estimate the probability that this will occur - Expected utility = sum of the utilities of each possible outcome x probability

Answer 294

- Simon (1957) - We cannot analyse all options - People can only carry out highly selective searches due to limitations of cognitive system - People are satisficers, not maximisers – they use heuristics

Answer 295

o Flying is safer than car o Car accident usually ends up in few casualties o Plane accidents are more severe o Plane accidents more available from memory

Answer 296

o Base conclusions on small samples, but should base on a large number o E.g gambler’s fallacy

Answer 297

- John Jerome white - No rape kit, pubic hair and skin used - Police sketch used; victim picked white from photo array - Exonerated by DNA analysis in 2007 - Eyewitness testimony o Poor lighting o Not wearing glasses o 6 weeks between attack and line up o White only person present in both photo array and live line-up

Answer 298

- Victims often report clothing, build, height, age and weapon incorrectly - Jurors do not understood memory properly, so may think eyewitness testimony is more reliable than it is

Answer 299

``` - Problems for eyewitness testimony o Cross-racial impairment o Weapon focus effect o Time estimate bias o Confuse confidence with accuracy o Perception is reconstruction, not like a photograph ```

Answer 300

- Megreya & Burton (2006) : matching face experiment, some people particularly poor at it - Eyewitnesses testimonies are recollected by interviews (implying words translate images, however this is not accurate)

Answer 301

- Retention period : the more time you have to observe a fact, the better the encoding - Age : children over 4 are as accurate as adults when target is in line-up (children/elderly less accurate when target is not) o Children are suggestible in interviews - Witnesses : may not be reliable, confabulation - Weapon focus : attention is driven to most relevant stimuli (e.g weapon) - Stress : arousal too low/ high : poor recall o Emotions have a huge effect on memory storage (flashbulb)

Answer 302

- Reconstruction of events, not like a video

Answer 303

- Broca’s area : inferior frontal cortex | - Wernicke’s area : posterior superior temporal cortex

Answer 304

- Lesion studies : damage to left hemisphere causes language deficits o 95% of right handers have left lateralised language - Language deficits and RHS motor control commonly associated

Answer 305

- Patient with speech production problems but not speech comprehension - Progressive disease o After 10 years : paralysed in right arm, leg, intellectual functioning impaired - Lesion in left hemisphere frontal lobe

Answer 306

- Broca’s aphasia : o Damage to third convolution of frontal lobe o Patients can only speak haltingly, miss many function words, abbreviated syntax o Good comprehension o Non fluent aphasia : slow and effortful o Agraphia : difficulties with handwriting (generates commands for motor cortex)

Answer 307

- 1874 : 2 patients - Difficulties in understanding spoken language - Paraphasic speech : nonsense speech production - Lesion of superior temporal cortex in left hemisphere - Difficulties in speech comprehension - Receptive aphasia : speech perception impaired - No trouble in comprehending other’s speech but difficulties monitoring their own and repeating sentences (conduction aphasia : damage to arcuate fasciculus, difficulties in communication between Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas)

Answer 308

- Hickok (2012) - Involves dorsal and ventral streams o Dorsal : upper side of brain o Ventral : lower/ inferior part of brain - Two parallel streams o Parallel processing within each stream o Ventral primarily supports speech comprehension o Dorsal pathway primarily supports sensory motor integration (speech production) - Network expands past Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas o Dorsal and ventral premotor areas : most language activity is at boundary between BA 44/45 and premotor cortex (BA6) o Anterior-frontal areas of superior temporal gyrus and anterior/ posterior middle temporal gyrus - Bilateral processing in ventral streams - Activity in Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas in speech observation tasks (fMRI) and activated network between (premotor, sensory)