Brains And Minds + Research Methods

Question 2

How many neurons are in the human brain?

Answer 2

86 billion neurons.

Question 3

How many neurons are in the cerebrum?

Answer 3

16 billion.

Question 4

How many neurons are in the cerebellum?

Answer 4

69 billion.

Question 5

How many neurons are in the brain stem?

Answer 5

1 billion.

Question 6

Who believed the brain was the seat of rational thought and that ventricles were used for thinking?

Answer 6

Galen (150–200 AD).

Question 7

What were Galen’s views on the soul’s location in the body?

Answer 7

Brain - rational soul; Heart - passionate soul; Liver - appetitive soul.

Question 8

Who created detailed anatomical drawings and claimed the brain is the seat of all thought, feeling, and action?

Answer 8

Andreas Vesalius (1500–1540).

Question 9

Who discovered that the brain uses electricity to function?

Answer 9

Luigi Galvani (1737–1798).

Question 10

What theory did Franz Gall propose?

Answer 10

Phrenology – the idea that different brain areas have different functions and skull bumps reflect mental faculties.

Question 11

What parts of Gall’s phrenology were correct and incorrect?

Answer 11

Correct: localization of function.

Incorrect: skull shape reflects brain function; used to justify racism.

Question 12

What did Phineas Gage’s accident demonstrate about the brain?

Answer 12

Different brain areas have different functions; a person can survive with damaged parts but exhibit changes.

Question 13

What was Pierre Paul Broca’s major discovery?

Answer 13

Broca’s area is responsible for speech production; damage to it caused speech loss but preserved other functions.

Question 14

What is Dualism in the philosophy of mind?

Answer 14

The belief that the brain and mind/soul are separate entities.

Question 15

Who is associated with Dualism?

Answer 15

René Descartes.

Question 16

What is Monism (Materialism)?

Answer 16

The idea that the brain and mind are different aspects of the same physical thing.

Question 17

What is Functionalism?

Answer 17

The view that mental states are defined by their function, which the brain implements.

Question 18

Who founded the first psychology lab and when?

Answer 18

Wilhelm Wundt in 1879.

Question 19

Who conducted the first memory studies in psychology?

Answer 19

Hermann Ebbinghaus (1885).

Question 20

Who wrote the first psychology textbook?

Answer 20

William James (1890).

Question 21

How did early computer science contribute to brain research?

Answer 21

By simulating human thought and enabling neuron-level experiments.

Question 22

What metaphor was used for the mind during the Industrial Revolution?

Answer 22

The mind as a series of gears or as a computer.

Question 23

What are some modern tools for understanding brain function?

Answer 23

Brain imaging (fMRI, EEG), computational models.

Question 24

What is localized processing in the brain?

Answer 24

Specific brain regions handle specific functions.

Question 25

What is distributed processing in the brain?

Answer 25

Brain functions are spread across multiple regions working together.

Question 26

What is proliferation in brain development?

Answer 26

The production of new cells, especially stem cells that divide and give rise to other cells.

Question 27

Which species’ neurons proliferate for longer: humans or chimpanzees?

Answer 27

Humans.

Question 28

What is migration in brain development?

Answer 28

Primitive cells move using immunoglobulins and chemokines as guides.

Question 29

What happens if migration chemicals are deficient?

Answer 29

Can lead to smaller brain size and intellectual impairment.

Question 30

What is cell differentiation?

Answer 30

When cells develop into neurons and form dendrites, axons, and synapses.

Question 31

What is synaptogenesis?

Answer 31

The formation of synapses, which continues throughout life.

Question 32

What is myelination?

Answer 32

Glia produce insulating sheaths around axons.

Question 33

What was Cajal’s view on neuron formation?

Answer 33

Neurons form only during embryological development or infancy.

Question 34

What are exceptions to Cajal’s idea about neuron formation?

Answer 34

Olfactory receptors and possibly some neurons in the hippocampus.

Question 35

How was adult neurogenesis detected?

Answer 35

Using carbon-14 (14C) isotopes in human cells.

Question 36

What did Paul Weiss’s salamander experiments show?

Answer 36

Axons can find their way to the correct muscles, not random connections.

Question 37

What did Roger Sperry demonstrate with newts?

Answer 37

Axons follow chemical cues to reach specific targets.

Question 38

What is neural Darwinism?

Answer 38

Neurons compete for synapses; useful ones are kept, others are eliminated.

Question 39

What did Rita Levi-Montalcini discover about neuron survival?

Answer 39

Neurons need NGF (nerve growth factor) to survive; those without it undergo apoptosis.

Question 40

What is apoptosis?

Answer 40

Programmed cell death, which NGF can prevent.

Question 41

What role does BDNF play in the brain?

Answer 41

It’s a neurotrophin essential for neuron growth and survival.

Question 42

Why is the developing brain vulnerable?

Answer 42

It is more affected by factors like fever, malnutrition, BPA, and toxins like lead.

Question 43

What is fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)?

Answer 43

A condition caused by heavy drinking during pregnancy leading to cognitive and physical impairments.

Question 44

How does stress in a pregnant mother affect offspring?

Answer 44

It can change the mother’s behavior and indirectly affect the child’s behavior.

Question 45

Can neurons adopt new functions when transplanted early?

Answer 45

Yes, early in development the cortex is plastic and neurons can adapt.

Question 46

What happens to dendrites with experience?

Answer 46

Dendritic branches and spines change with learning and enriched environments.

Question 47

What is far transfer in cognitive development?

Answer 47

The idea that learning hard tasks improves general intellect—often untrue.

Question 48

How does intense skill use (e.g., music) affect brain structure?

Answer 48

It can enlarge representation of used areas but sometimes impairs function (e.g., finger control).

Question 49

Why are adolescents more impulsive?

Answer 49

They prioritize excitement and present rewards over future consequences.

Question 50

What are average effects of aging on the brain?

Answer 50

Memory decline, reasoning decline, and brain shrinkage—but varies by individual.

Question 51

What is a stroke?

Answer 51

A cerebrovascular accident that disrupts blood flow and kills neurons.

Question 52

What is the difference between ischemia and hemorrhage?

Answer 52

Ischemia: blocked artery; Hemorrhage: ruptured artery.

Question 53

What does tPA (tissue plasminogen activator) do?

Answer 53

Breaks up clots to reduce damage after an ischemic stroke.

Question 54

What is diaschisis?

Answer 54

Reduced activity in surviving neurons due to loss of input from damaged areas.

Question 55

What is collateral sprouting?

Answer 55

New axon branches grow to take over synapses left vacant by damaged neurons.

Question 56

What is denervation supersensitivity?

Answer 56

Increased sensitivity of a neuron after loss of input.

Question 57

What causes the phantom limb experience?

Answer 57

Cortical areas are taken over by nearby inputs, causing sensation in missing limbs.