breadth 1: Changes in representation in Britain (1832-1928) Flashcards
1
Q
who is included in the franchise/ voter requirements in the 1832 GRA
A
- boroughs: adult male £10 householders
- counties: adult male £2 householders
- this allowed MC adult men to be enfranchised - not WC
2
Q
when were the 3 reform acts
A
- 1832
- 1867
- 1884
3
Q
How many adult males can vote from the 1832 reform act
A
- 1 in 5 adult males - 800,000
4
Q
outline the changes in representation in the 1832 GRA
A
- 56 rotten/ pocket boroughs were disenfranchised
- 145 borough seats were abolished
- 22 new 2 member boroughs created (e.g. 14 in London)
- 64 new county seats created so more populous counties gained more seats
5
Q
what is evidence of pressure from below for the 1832 GRA
A
- Swing Movement 1830: protests due to use of threshing (machinery) machines
- Days of May 1832: a period of social + political unrest after the Tories blocked the 3rd Reform Bill in the HoL
- Bristol Riots 1931: violent protests + destruction of property triggered by the rejection of the reform bill in 1831
- Atwood’s Birmingham Political Union: united MC + skilled WC, over 100,000 attended meetings - fuelled support for reform
6
Q
what was the 1858 Property Qualifications for MPs Act
A
- parliaments candidates / MPs no longer had to own property, thus opening up parliament to the MC + WC
7
Q
Why did the property qualification act 1858 come about
A
- Glover (MP), was arrested after his qualification as an MP included fraud, as his property was heavily mortgaged, however its estimated over 1/2 of the MPs did this
- the PQ was an outdated artificial barrier open to abuse for becoming an MP
8
Q
What changes did 1867 2nd reform act make to the franchise
A
- boroughs: adult males owning/ renting houses (householder franchise) could vote + £10 lodger owners (lodger franchise)
- counties: adult males owning/ leasing land worth £5
- this act enfranchised skilled working class men
9
Q
what was the proportion of men who could vote after the 1867 RA
A
- 1 in 3 adult males
- 1867 almost doubled the electorate
10
Q
What changes did 1867 2nd reform act make to representation
A
- 45 seats were taken from boroughs with populations less than 10,000
- 25 seats were given to counties
- cities like Leeds, Birmingham get a 3rd MP
11
Q
1867: _____ electorate grows by ___% ; the ___ dominate the borough electorate for the 1st time
A
- 1867: borough electorate grows by 134% ; the w/c dominate the borough electorate for the 1st time
12
Q
Give examples of the boroughs that gained seats in 1867
A
- Liverpool & Manchester get a 3rd MP
13
Q
what was the 1872 Secret Ballot Act
A
- introduced the secret ballot (private form of voting)
- decreased influence of land owners in elections
14
Q
what was the pressure from above for the 1872 SBA
A
- radicals: felt it would give voters more freedom
- Liberals: committed to electoral reform - this proposal had originally been included in 1832 + Gladstone felt compelled to accept policy ideas from radicals to keep Lib coalition together
15
Q
what was the 1883 Corrupt Practises Act
A
- set a limit on expenditure & prohibited treating & bribery
- it required expenditure to be accounted for + introduced penalties ranging from fines to imprisonment + expulsion from HofC
16
Q
Why did the 1883 Corrupt Practices Act come about
A
- the 1872 act didn’t stop bribery, & due to an increased electorate since 1867, more people to bribe
17
Q
What changes did 1884 make to the franchise
A
- household suffrage + the lodger franchise was extended to the counties
18
Q
How many adult males could vote due to the 1884 3rd RA
A
- 2 in 3 adult males, so 5.7 million could now vote
- it added 2.5m voters - mainly in rural areas
19
Q
outline the changes of the 1885 Redistribution Act
A
- boroughs with populations less than 15,000 lose all MPs
- those with less than 50,000 lose 1 MP
- 150 seats were redistributed to more densely populated counties - e.g. Yorkshire + Lancashire
- nearly all constituencies were single member + of similar size in terms of population
20
Q
Outline the Parliament Act (Parliament Act + Payment of MPs Act) 1911
A
- introduced salaries for MPs
- HofL prevented from rejecting or amending (changing) a money bill
- HofL could only delay legislation for up to 2 years
- the maximum term of a PLT reduced from 7 to 5 years
21
Q
Which party was most likely to benefit from the Parliament Act, 1911
A
- Labour; more w/c men can become MPs because of the introduction of MP salaries
22
Q
when was the Representation of the People Act
A
- 1918
23
Q
What changes did the 1918 RotPA make to the franchise
A
- women 30yrs+ who were householders/ married to one won the vote
- men 21yrs+ living at a fixed address for 6mnths win the vote
24
Q
in the 1918 RofPA, the number of voters tripled from ___m (1910) to ___m (1918)
A
- in the 1918 RofPA, the number of voters tripled from 7.7m (1910) to 21.4m (1918)
25
Following the 1918 reform act, which adult remained excluded from the franchise
- women aged 21 to 30
26
what was the name of the 1928 act
- the 1928 Equal Franchise Act
27
who + how many extra voters were added to the electorate by the 1928 act
- 5 million new voters; all women 21+ could now vote
28
define turning point
- turning point = a marked shift in development
29
what are the 4 criteria used to assess reform acts
- electorate: numerical increase, makeup of gender / class
- distribution of seats across areas
- corruption: plural voting, secret ballot, expenditure, rotten boroughs
- payment of MPs
30
outline the 1790 Acts under Pitt's Govt
- seditious writings + publications act (1792): authorised Govt to use spies to infiltrate rad. groups
- suspension of habeas corpus (1794): allowed auth. to detain suspects w/o trial
- Treason Trials (1794): 40+ radicals (including LCS leaders Thomas Hardy, John Horn Tooke) arrested + charged with high treason
31
state an example of a rotten borough before the 1832 GRA
- Dunwich
- Old Sarum
32
between ______-__, when the economy was stable, there wasn't a single _______ for political reform
- between 1824-29, when the economy was stable, there wasn't a single petition for political reform
33
name 2 significant whig reform acts
- The Factory Act 1833
- The Poor Law Amendment Act 1834
34
outline the The Factory Act
- passed in 1833
- reduced child labour;
- those 9-13yrs could only work 8 hrs
- 13-18 could work max 12 hrs
- under 13s had to do 2 hrs of schooling
- inspectors were appointed to avoid abuse of these rights (but was only 4 for the whole of UK)
35
outline The Poor Law Amendment Act
- passed in 1834
- aimed to address rising costs of poor relief + discourage welfare reliance
- no outdoor poor relief given to able-bodied poor
- workhouse conditions deliberately poor to deter use of poor relief
- led to public discontent
36
the Corn Laws were seen as...
- the Corn Laws were seen as a symbol of the aristocracy's privileged position
37
after the 1832 GRA, _____ said it was "a final and _____ ____", not a basis for future ______
- after the 1832 GRA, Peel said it was "a final and irrevocable settlement", not a basis for future reform
38
by ____, there were about ______ plural voters
- by 1910, there were about 500,000 plural voters
39
outline Pitt's proposed reforms
- between 1782-85, Pitt made 3 attempts to introduce parliamentary reform - focused on making distribution of seats fairer
- 1785: Pitt proposed a detailed reform bill which sought to abolish the 36 most corrupt boroughs + redistribute their 72 seats
- this bill failed to gain majority support - it was viewed as an attack on property rights + was known King George III opposed it
39
outline economical reform in the 1780s
- Economical Reform was the name given to the policy of reducing royal patronage which followed Dunning's Motion
- the number of Gov ministers + offices was reduced - thus saving money + limiting patronage (privilege)
39
outline Dunnings Motion
- in the years before 1780, calls for reform began to grow
- this was connected to concerns about the conduct of the War of American Independence + the increased taxes that accompanied to
- in 1780, Dunning's Motion was passed which stated that 'the power of the Crown has increased, is increasing, and ought to be diminished'
40
outline the Whigs role in reform
- more receptive to change than the Tories + were increasingly supportive to parliamentary reform
- the corruption of the unreformed system unfairly benefitted the Tories (monopolized off uncontested seats + pocket boroughs)
- Whigs came to view parliamentary reform as crucial for their success in Gov
40
outline King George IV's view of reform
- King George IV was a determined opponent to reform
40
outline the Tories role in reform
- Tories were unlikely to agree to changes which were harmful to their own political prospects - they benefitted from the corruption of the unreformed system
- they did however agree to minor changes, such as the 1821 corrupt Cornish Borough being disenfranchised + its seats redistributed to Yorkshire
40
what are 6 reasons for why demand for reform returned in 1830
- the collapse of the Tories
- death of George IV
- economic problems + popular unrest
- rise of Whigs
- French Revolution
- Catholic Emancipation Act 1829
41
outline the long term social factors for why the Great Reform Act 1832 was passed
- the 1789 French Revolution sparked interest in reform, reformist ideas such as promoting liberty + equality became widespread + strongly supported in society
- working people, esp in industrial towns, were increasingly politicised - e.g. large numbers of pamphlets + newspapers spread radical political ideas to a wide and receptive audience - e.g. Cobbett's Weekly Political Register
- the growth of large political meetings in the early 19thC focused on single issues - e.g. opposition to Corn Laws, as well as wider issues - e.g. Spa Fields 1817 demanding reform of PLT
41
outline the short term social factors for why the Great Reform Act 1832 was passed
- in Bristol, protesters burned the palace of an anti-reform bishop + the house of an anti-reform MP
- Days of May 1832: when the 2nd bill was rejected by the HofL, the Birmingham Political Union (BPU) led 100,000 in a public, peaceful march
- when Wellington tried to form a Tory gov, unions threatened to create a financial crisis by urging people to take their money out of the banks
41
outline the long term economic factors for why the Great Reform Act 1832 was passed
- agricultural unrest: since late 18thC, growth in rural population created too many agricultural labourers - wages declined + unemployment increased - new agricultural machinery exacerbated this
- Corn Laws 1815: caused widespread opposition as the price of bread rose. it was seen as an example of PLT promoting interests of land owners at expense of WC + MC - led to organised protests for reform
41
outline the short term economic factors for why the Great Reform Act 1832 was passed
- severe economic crisis in late 1820s: 1828-30 harvests were poor - high food prices in cities
- Swing Movements 1830: riots in South England with arson attacks + destruction of threshing machines showed how bad the situation was for agricultural workers
41
outline the long term political factors for why the Great Reform Act 1832 was passed
- death of Lord Liverpool in 1827 marked the end of Tory Party unity + supremacy
- internal divisions, esp over religious issues like Catholic Emancipation, split the Tory Party
- Wellington was criticised by Ultra Tories for passing the Catholic Relief Act in 1829 - this alienated Tories + strengthened their ability to oppose reform
41
outline the short term political factors for why the Great Reform Act 1832 was passed
- George IV died and replaced by Willian IV who was more favourable to reform
- the 1830 General Election saw Wellington return to office but his refusal to back reform saw his gov defeated, forcing his resignation
- pro-reform Whig leader, Earl Grey, took over
42
what was the most significant factor in the passing of the 1832 GRA
- the fall of Wellington was very significant in the barrier to political reform
- when Grey took office as head of Whigs, most people expected him to introduce reform
- pressure + expectation was at its highest level
43
outline the growth of the county electorate from the 1867 2nd RA
- from the 1867 2nd RA, the county electorate grew by 46%
- in counties, most labourers still excluded from the franchise - it remained solidly MC
44
give an example of the borough electorate growing from the 1867 2GRA
- in Birmingham, voters rise from 8,000 to 43,000
44
outline the lack of progress from the 1867 2nd GRA
- overrepresentation continues - e.g. South England had 45 MPs, whilst North had 32, despite having 3x the population
- in counties, landed interests continue to dominate + the social comp of MPs changed little
- benefitted only the 'respectable' / landed WC
44
what was the pressure from below for the 1867 2nd GRA
- population growth: by 1865, the pop had grown to 5 million compared to 1832, yet there was still no extension of franchise or redistribution to seats to growing urban areas
- radicalism: rise in reform movement, was a Hyde Park demonstration in 1866 which ended in violence - huge crowds, collapse of railings, was widely reported in the press
- economy: declined drastically in 1866 with collapse of some banks + subsequent collapse of many companies - poor weather conditions wiped out many crops
44
outline the lack of progress from the 1872 SBA
- IN THE SHORT TERM, votes could still be bought + treating of voters remained commonplace until 1883 CPA
- the act didn't immediately lead to the reduction of employers' influence over their workers in urban areas
44
what was the significance of the 1872 SBA
- IN THE LONG TERM, it enabled the system to become more representative + democratic, leading to an improvement in the efficiency of the electoral process
- it finally allowed political groups such as the Irish Home Rulers to oppose traditional powerful figures
44
outline the lack of progress from the 1832 GRA
- the new voters weren't convinced of the need for further reform - 1832 GRA successfully detached the MC from the WC
- Grey succeeded in his aim of preserving aristocratic influence in gov; e.g. all PMs for the next 30 years came from HofL (except Peel)
- equal electoral districts still didn't exist - London + the North continued to be under-represented
- corruption + bribery continued
- property qualification + open ballot remain
44
outline the significance of the 1883 CPA
- the act was successful - spending per vote decreased in the long term
45
what was the pressure from above for the 1867 2nd GRA
- Liberals: believed they had stagnated on reform - now Palmerston was dead, was an opportunity + wanted to reform boroughs (where Lib appeal is strongest) - expediency
- Conservatives: 'if reform is inevitable, Cons should jump in and take credit for it'
- Gladstone (Lib PM) in 1866 proposed reform bill
- Conservatives: felt 1832 favoured boroughs (where their vote was weakest) + believed boroughs to be overrepresented - expediency
- Conservatives: Disraeli believed that enfranchising skilled urban workers would create "Tory Democracy" WC supporters of Cons policies
45
within _ years of the 1883 Corrupt Practices Act, the amount spent per vote fell from _ (_) to _ (_)
- within 30 years of the 1883 Corrupt Practices Act, the amount spent per vote fell from 18s8d (1880) to 3s4d (1910)
45
outline the pressure from below for the 1872 Secret Ballot Act
- 1868 election: was widespread violence, corruption and intimidation in this election - was widely reported in the media + received attention in courts of law
- but, was little evidence that popular pressure helped secure this act
46
outline the limitations of the 1883 CPA
- given the limits on expenditure, the use of volunteers by parties was now essential
- costs of elections still remained high for those involved - e.g. costs of salaries of election agents
- since MPs were still not paid, 20% of elections remained uncontested (not debated)
47
outline the significance of the 1884 3rd RA
- now, agricultural labourers + miners living in counties could vote
- the redistribution of rural seats + extension of the county franchise meant that the decline of aristocratic influence sped up - the stranglehold of the landowners was gone forever
48
outline the Arlington St Compact
- was the price of the Conservatives (under Salisbury) supporting the Liberals (under Gladstone) for the 1884 3rd RA
- through this, Salisbury was able to influence to re-drawing of constituency boundaries so that many new distinctly suburban constituencies were created out of big towns + cities
- this was called 'Villa Toryism'
48
outline the pressure from above for the 1884 3rd RA
- Gladstone: keen to restore his waning popularity + to satisfy radical critics
- Chamberlain (rads): needed a radical measure to restore his credentials - he hoped electoral reform would provide further supporters in counties for radical reforms
- Salisbury (Cons): realised franchise extension wouldn't be disastrous for his party if they could shape re-distribution of seats (esp in growing suburbs) - S drops oppositions once the Arlington St Compact is agreed
48
outline the pressure from below for the 1884 3rd RA
- no significant popular demand for parliamentary reform existed in 1884
48
outline the pressure from above for the 1885 Redistribution Act
- Salisbury/ Conservatives: S was able to influence to re-drawing of constituency boundaries through the Arlington St Compact
- created Villa Toryism
48
outline the significance of the 1885 election
- due to the 1884 3rd RA, for the first time manufacturers + commercial MPs outnumbered landowners in the HofC
- the electoral system was now dominated by city + suburban interests
48
outline the limitations to the 1885 Redistribution Act
- London's MPs increased from 22 to 59, yet the North was still under-represented
- Ireland remained over-represented - meaning Irish Nationalists held the balance of power
- the Conservatives benefitted from splitting previously radical cities into several divisions
49
outline the limitations of the 1884 3rd RA
- the complexities of the registration process + residential qualification effectively disenfranchised many working men
- plural voting (1 person voting more than once) continued - 500,000 in 1911
- many people still didn't have the vote: adults living with parents, soldiers, those on poor relief, and women
49
evidence of the Conservatives success from the Arlington St Compact
- success: Cons began to win most of the seats in London, compared to 0 in 1865
49
outline the pressure from below for the 1911 Parliament Act
- there is little evidence of popular unrest
49
outline the background to the 1911 Parliament Bill
- with the Lords’ vetoing powers, they could be overturning measures even if they had the support of the majority of the population
- as the HofC became more democratic + representative, the HofL became an anachronism (out of place)
- their vetoing of Lib measures on education + plural voting brought matters to a head, even though Lords were careful not to block any measures that had popular support
49
outline the pressure from above for the 1911 Parliament Act
- 1909 election: when the HofL refused to pass the 1909 budget, an election (Peers v People) was held - once Libs had won, they introduced a bill to limit the power of the HofL
- Asquith: used warnings of impending serious popular unrest to force King to agree to appoint 500 new peers if HofL continue blocking Parliament Bill
50
outline the pressure from below for the 1885 Redistribution Act
- no significant popular demand for parliamentary redistribution in 1885
51
outline the significance of the 1911 Parliament Act
- allows Commons to overrule the Lords in some situations
- Lords’ power was substantially reduced - only delayed bills for 2 years - never again would a PM govern from the HofL
- working men could now enter Parliament as MPs
- salaries for MPs attract poorer men to PLT + allows for rise of Labour Party
79
outline the changes to redistribution from the RotPA in 1918
- establishes 70,000 population as a key unit for 1 member constituencies
80
outline the significance of the RotPA 1918
- significant boost for Labour: cheaper elections, enfranchisement of millions of WC men, payment of MPs (1911) etc
81
how many can now vote from the 1918 RotPA
- number of voters was raised from 7.7m in 1910 to 21.4m in 1918
- this made it the most significant enlargement of the franchise in British history
82
outine the limitations of the RotPA 1918
- 20% of women over 30 didn’t meet the qualifications to vote
- plural voting remains: 30,000 people + max of 2 votes - this was a conssesion to the Conservatives for supporting act
- the complexities of registrations disenfranchised about 7% of adult males who are enfranchised
83
outline the Catholic Emancipation Act + its background
- background: in 1828, O’Connell, a Catholic Irish, stood for MP + won by huge majority, he was prevented taking his seat in Westminster
- Wellington faced a dilemma - face a civil war in Ireland or allow O’Connell/ other Catholics to sit in PLT
- in 1829, the Catholic Emancipation/ Relief Act was passed by Wellington, allowing Catholics to sit in PLT
84
outline the Birmingham Political Union (BPU)
- BPU was founded in 1830 by Thomas Atwood
- was strong in its support from the MC + WC
- conducted in a disciplined and peaceful manner
- known for their role in Days of May 1831 for the 1832 (armed protests + strikes throughout UK)
85
what was Whigs/ Greys attitude to reform
- ‘reform that ye may preserve’
- Grey advocated for minor reform to end further demands for reform + allow the landed class to stay in power
86
what percentage of adult men could vote in 1780
- only 3% of the adult male population
87
who was the Liberal party made up of
- the Irish
- Whigs
- Radicals
88
outline Days of May
- 1832
- political unions met in London following Grey's resignation + Wellington being asked to form a ministry to block any Tory administration
- Francis Place stated 'Stop the Duke, Go for Gold', meaning, those holding paper money to demand its gold equivalent from the banks, thus causing a financial crisis
89
outline the extent of importance played by popular pressure for the 1832 GRA
- it did play a role, but a less dominant one than is assumed;
- due to stable econ conditions 1824-29, there wasn't a single petition for political reform
- the main features of the reform bill was settled well before the height of popular pressure
- after March 1831, popular protest was in support of the Gov (e.g. for Whigs) and against those opposing reform - it wasn't 'radical'
90
outline the Municipal Corporations Act
- passed in 1835
- councils were allowed to take over local aspects such as street cleaning - marked a shift towards more democratic + accountable local govts
- it defined the functions of local authorities - all ratepayers (mostly MC) with 3 years' residence could vote in local elections
91
what was the impact of the 1832 GRA on party organisation
- 1832 required that those enfranchised enter their names on an electoral register before they vote
- this intended to improve the administration of elections
- this gave a boost to local organization as parties tried to ensure that all their supporters were registered
- the Municipal Corporations Act 1835 encouraged party activism on a local scale
91
outline the Litchfield House Compact
- formed in 1835
- was an informal political alliance between Whigs, Irish, and Radicals to oppose the Conservatives under Peel
- was successful - Peel resigned in April 1835
- this formed the Liberal Party
91
outline the Anti-Corn Law League
- born in 1830s
- led by Cobden, Wilson and Bright
- aimed to overturn the Corn Laws - which were a symbol of aristocracy's privileged position
- CLs were repealed in 1846, which the ACLL claimed credit for - but CLs were repealed due to Peel's dislike of them
- Bright + ACLL moved their focus to political reforms in the 1850s - was peaceful + popular
92
outline the assuredness of the Govt
- 1832 showed that when the elite are divided there is opportunity for significant change
- after Chartism, there is a long period of unity among elite (united against front of Chartism)
- Govt believed, in Peel's words, 1832 was a 'final and irrevocable settlement' - not a staging post for further reform
92
outline Palmerston's role in reform
- Palmerston became Prime Minister (for Liberals) in 1855 at age 70
- although he had supported 1832 GRA, Palmerston was a clear opponent to electoral reform
- as long as P was alive, it was widely agreed that there would be no more political reform
- he died in 1865
92
outline the Reform League + Reform Union
- in the 1860s, the workers association began focusing on reforming PLT through legal means
- they then formed the Reform Union (demanded household suffrage) in 1864 and the Reform League (demanded universal male suffrage) in 1865
- a Reform League demonstration in Hyde Park in 1866 ended in violence
93
what are 3 factors of the Liberals that make them more inclined to reform
- faith in reform: Palmerston was a frustrating PM for the Libs - now he was dead, Libs were eager to be more dynamic
- positive view of the WC: WC grew their respectability - esp with their reaction to the US Civil War
- redress the political imbalance: Libs wanted to reform boroughs - where their appeal is strongest
93
how did the WC grow their respectability
- they work on a program of self-improvement to show that they are worthy of the vote
- they saved money in banks (showed respectability + independence)
- friendly societies: early co-operative societies providing credit, welfare, insurance and pensions
- New Model Unions: respectable Trade Unions for craftsmen - provided benefits + high unemployment benefits
- their reaction to the US Civil War
93
what was the Conservative view of reform for 1867
- 1832 was unfair as it gave too much say to boroughs where their vote was weaker
- they are motivated to change the system + if reform is going to happen, they might as well control it to the best of their ability
93
outline the Hodgkinson Ammendment
- was the most radical amendment to the 1867 Reform Bill
- it allowed all householders to vote, regardless of how their rates were paid (indirectly or directly)
- this was seemingly insignificant, but resulted in 500,000 more WC men getting the vote
93
outline personal political rivalry as a reason for the passing of the 1867 Reform Act
- Disraeli sought to undermine Gladstone at every turn - accepting amendments proposed by Radical Liberals but rejecting any from Gladstone
94
outline popular pressure as a reason for the passing of the 1867 Reform Act
- in 1864, the Reform Union (Middle Class) was formed followed by the Reform League (Working Class) in 1865
- they put pressure on the Liberal Party for reform
- external pressure, such as demonstrations in Hyde Park, leading to violence + vandalism, as well as protests in industrial towns, added to the sense of urgency to get the bill passed
94
outline party political rivalry as a reason for the passing of the 1867 Reform Act
- the Conservatives had been in opposition for the last 20 years - reform could give electoral advantage
- Cons under Lord Derby + Disraeli saw reform as a way to gain political advantage by passing it before the Liberals did
- they hoped the newly enfranchised electorate would vote for Conservatives
- Cons believed the 1832 RA was unfair - gave too much power to the boroughs where their vote was weakest - were motivated to change system
95
after 1832, _ adults in counties were represented by _ MPs, whilst _ adults living in boroughs were represented by _ MPs
- after 1832, 11.5million adults in counties were represented by 162 MPs, whilst 8.5million adults living in boroughs were represented by 334 MPs
96
who won the 1868 election + significance
- Liberals under Gladstone won
- Conservatives under Disraeli lost - thought they'd win after 1867 RA from which Conservatives enfranchised hundreds of thousands
97
why did the Liberals win the 1868 election
- campaign: Gladstone realised new voters had to be won over so made a series of speeches to mass audiences across the UK - Disraeli did a single speech
- policy: the Whig tradition of religious toleration secured support from non-conformists + radicals. Lib slogan ('Justice for Ireland') helped unite party
97
after _, _% of adult males were able to vote
- after 1885, 60% of adult males were able to vote
98
what is the Chandos Clause
- this clause in the 1832 GRA extended voting rights to Tenant Farmers
- this change benefitted large landowners, who could influence how their tenants voted
- this strengthened the landed aristocracy’s control over county elections, expanded the franchise - but still left the WC disenfranchised and helped the landed class maintain political influence
99
which act is Chandos Clause in
- 1832 GRA
