Britain 1951-64 Flashcards
(216 cards)
1
Q
Who was Hugh Gaitskell?
A
Labour party Leader/Leader of the opposition from 1955-63
2
Q
Who was R.A Butler?
A
Deputy Prime Minister to Eden + Macmillan
Strong party leader of promoting post war consensus
3
Q
What kind of Conservative was Butler?
A
Encouraged the party to become more progressive, and modernised the party’s attitude and policy
- ie Education Act 1944
4
Q
How did the Education Act (1944) support the idea that Butler was a progressive, left leaning Conservative?
A
- The act outlined a tripartite system
- Introduced to tackle Beveridge’s giants (ignorance)
- Represented modern change in society
5
Q
Why was Butler an important Conservative figure between 1945-51?
A
- Had a key role in restoring Conservative morale, encouraging recovery after 1945 defeat
- Prevented Labour from being known as more modern than the Conservatives by trying to modernise Conservative policies
6
Q
What is the significance of Butler’s ‘Industrial Charter’
(1947)?
A
- Represented the modernisation of the party’s policies
- Highlighted the importance of trade unions (more left wing) and suggested a mixed economy of private and state-directed industries
7
Q
What is ‘Butskellism’?
A
The feeling of Post war consensus between the 2 parties, leading a more Central party (Labour right + Conservative left)
8
Q
What were reasons for Labour’s defeat in the 1951 election?
A
Labour weaknesses
Conservative advantages
FPTP
Socio economic reasons
9
Q
What were the Labour weaknesses causing their defeat in the 1951 election?
A
- Atlee’s government was worn down by heavy economic and financial difficulties
- Collectively and individually, government was exhausted after 6 troubled years in office
- A number of ministers, ie Atlee himself, Herbert Morrison and Ernest Bevin were working continuously since 1940 (exhausted)
- Serious divisions between the right and left of the party over economic, welfare and foreign policy (Bevanites and Gaitskellites on issues ie on NHS charges for prescriptions)
- Resentment amongst some trade unions at Labour’s slowness in responding to worker demands, felt they were becoming too centrist as a party
- Shrinking of their majority in 1950 election made it hard to govern and damaged party morale
- Labour found it difficult to shake off image as party of rationing, austerity, and high taxation-> unhappy electorate
- Britain’s entry to Korean war in 1950 angered Labour left wing, essentially following USA in Cold WAR engagement
- Some voters thought Labour was too collectivist at the expense of free enterprise
10
Q
What were the Conservative strengths leading to Labour’s defeat in the 1951 election?
A
- Reorganisation of the party by Lord Woolton, reforming its finances + constituency organisation-> in a better position to fight for seats and votes compared to 1945
- Young Tory MPs (ie R.A Butler) bringing new ideas to the party
- Conservatives had begun to recover from shock of 1945 defeat
- 1950 election saw influx of bright young Conservative MPs eager for battle against a tiring government
- attack on government nationalisation of iron and steel provided strong platform for opposition attacks
11
Q
What were the Socioeconomic reasons leading to Labour’s defeat in the 1951 election?
A
- 1949: Labour govt forced to devalue the £ against the $
- people were tired of austerity
- Many wealthy people resented high taxation
- Felt nationalisation of Iron and Steel was going too far
12
Q
What what the fault of the FPTP system leading to Labour’s defeat in the 1951 election?
A
FPTP system allowed the party with less votes to win the election as they had more seats
1951:
Conservatives- 13.7 million votes, 321 seats
Labour- 13.9 million votes, 295 seats
13
Q
What were the 1951 election results?
A
Conservatives- 321 seats
48% vote
Majority of 17
Labour- 48.8% vote (won the popular vote by 0.8%)
295 seats
Labour got more votes but less seats
14
Q
What is the explanation of vote share in the 1951 election?
A
- Labour added 2 million votes between 1945-51
- Conservatives added nearly 4 million + Liberal party only put up 109 candidates, drop of 366 compared to 1950-> nearly 2 million ex-Liberal voters went largely to Conservatives
- Due to FPTP system, even though Labour got more votes, they lost the election due to seat share.
15
Q
What significant things happen in 1957?
A
UK first hydrogen bomb tested
Homicide Act
Rent Act
16
Q
What significant things happened in 1958?
A
Life peerages introduced
17
Q
What significant things happened in 1959?
A
Conservatives won general election. Britain became founding member of EFTA
18
Q
What significant events happened in 1960?
A
Macmillan’s winds of change speech
Labour party adopted unilateralism
19
Q
What significant events happened in 1962?
A
Commonwealth immigration Act.
Cuban missile crisis
20
Q
What significant events happened in 1963?
A
Britain’s application to join EEC vetoed by France
Profumo affair
Macmillan retired
Douglas-Home Conservative PM until 1964
21
Q
What was Macmillan’s social background?
A
Macmillan came from a middle class background (Publishing business)
- Married into the upper class
22
Q
What type of Conservative attitude did Macmillan have?
A
Macmillan, like Butler, is sometimes described as a one nation conservative. A ‘one nation’ conservative is another name for a centrist or left Conservative.
He thought they should give more provisions to the poor
23
Q
What were the good social developments between 1957-63 under Macmillan?
A
- Education…
- spread of comps
- the Robins Report (1963
- Class and Social Mobility
- Housing and Living Standards
24
Q
How did Macmillan impact Housing and Living Standards between 1957-63? (pos)
A
Committed to build 300,000 houses annually
1951-54: achieved the target
By 64: they claimed they built 1.7 million houses, 60% being private
Rent Act 1957: abolished rent control, put 6 million properties on the market
- Rents rose considerably
- Difficult for tenants at the lower end to afford leases
- Macmillan felt he had to do this to stimulate the rented property market
More ease with money being borrowed and repaid over long periods of time
- Encouraged by government-> banks and building societies advanced capital in the form of mortgages, allowing increasing numbers to own their own homes (thought more people would vote Conservative as home owners-> property owning democracy)
25
How did Macmillan impact Education between 1957-63? (pos)
- The Robin's report 1963 expanded Universities
- Some Conservatives opposed the spread of comprehensives
Boyle (minister of education 62-64) pushed for the abolition of the 11+, and for better education for all children
More comprehensives schools were built under Conservatives than under Labour
26
Why was the spread of Comprehensive schools good/Why were grammar schools bad?
- 11+ was unreliable
- Undervalued children who failed
- Selection was socially divisive
- Larger shares of funds went to top layers of schools, leaving lower layers impoverished
- Bright pupils formed as well academically in comprehensive as they did grammar
- Takes away wealth leading to education- social class all mixed together
Grammar schools received more funding, unfair
Middle class children would pass more (tendency) as they were more prepared for it
27
Why were Grammar schools good/Comprehensive schools bad?
- No alternative to bad comprehensive if grammar schools abolished
- Sets are still in Comprehensive, so still separated
- Smart children from disadvantaged backgrounds do not have any alternative and cannot move unlike wealthy parents
- Comprehensive denied children from disadvantaged backgrounds to benefit from school education fitted to their needs
- Quality of schools depended on the area they were situated-> would just be replaced by a poor comprehensive
- Wealthier parents could move to let children go to better comprehensives, poorer parents couldn't, now changing to selection by parental income
28
How did Macmillan impact Class and Social Mobility between 1957-63? (pos)
○ The increased availability of financial credit meant poorer people could spend more, so generally had more possessions - as did increased production due to higher consumer demand.
29
How did the importance of class decrease?
○ The war weakened class divisions due to shared wartime experience
○ The welfare state
○ People generally became much richer during the 1950s and 1960s, blurring class distinctions
30
How did class distinction remain in 1957-63?
People would still see things through the lens of class - for example, lower-middle class people who earned less than some of the wealthier working class people still saw themselves as socially superior.
31
What was Britain's industrial state under Macmillan, from Eden?
Britain wasn't producing quality products at a high enough quantity (late 50's, early 60's= heavily industrial country)
-
32
How was Britain different to Germany and Japan post WW2?
Germany + Japan had to restart after WW2, rebuilt the countries post invasion with new technology and innovation + ideas in mind
Britain had older technology, expensive to replace, no need to change how they produced things-> become a smaller manufacturing powers
- Country began to sink into debt, lack of modernisation (products from Germany and Japan began to dominate British markets
33
Why was there potential tension between Macmillan and trade unions?
Inflation was rising
Strikes + increase in union membership-> strong by the end of the war, got stronger during the 50's
34
What were the bad social developments under Macmillan from 1957-63?
* Immigration, Race Riots and an Immigration Act (1962)
* A youth subculture…
- “Teddy Boys”
- “Mods. vs Rockers”
* The Rent Act of 1957
*The Beeching Report (1963)
35
How did Youth Subculture change between 1957-63 under Macmillan? (neg)
Unwillingness for some youth to accept the standards and values of their elders, easily descending to antisocial behaviour and hooliganism
Led to Mods vs Rockers (antisocial behaviour) and Teddy Boys
36
Who are 'Mods vs Rockers'?
Mods drove motor scooters and dressed smarter whereas rockers rode motorbikes and they pre-arranged fights
- anti social behaviour
37
Why did Mods vs Rockers emerge?
* Wealthier society meant people with good wages felt independent
* Teenagers and 20 year olds first generation not to have lived through WW2 and were targeted by advertisers to see themselves as different
* Psychological theories encouraged young people to ignore tradition and act out of their feelings
* Scandals of upper classes didn't set a good example
1960s saw a boom of satire and undermined notions of respect and deference
38
Who are the 'Teddy Boys' ?
Used violence against immigrants to become 'local heroes'
Generally working class
Gathered in numbers
Racist
Called Teddy boys as they dressed like King Edward VI
39
How were initial Attitudes to Race in the 1940s?
Pre 1948 immigrants- Jews and Irish, not too obvious
1948- Windrush
From Kingston, Jamaica to Britain
Ship carries 100's of West Indian workers-> majority were young males
Initial warm welcome, assured them they would find new homes and jobs
Under existing law they had full rights of British citizenship, stimulating further immigration from the West Indies
Government encourages this with organised appeals for Caribbean workers to fill the vacancies- Hospital + transport services, Britain left with post-war labour shortages
40
How did Attitudes to Race change in the early to mid 1950s?
Segregation increased
- 'no coloured' notices appeared in boarding house windows + factory gates
- People thought they were attracted to Britain by the welfare benefits than the work aspect
41
How did Attitudes to Race change between 1958-9?
Riots broke out in urbans areas such as Nottingham, Bristol and some of the poorer London Districts
Pattern of trouble: gangs of white youths went round insulting black residents whose young men frequently retaliated
August, Notting Hill: crowd of 600+ white males tried to batter their way into black-owned properties
TV newsreels showed disturbing scenes of police trying to keep white and black mobs apart + fire services tried to quench the fires started by petrol bombs
42
What is the Salmon riot report?
Report on the 1958 Notting Hill race riots by Mr Justice Salmon
43
What did the Salmon report find on the riots?
- Sexual jealousy of young white males who resented white women going out with black males
- The anger of whites at the willingness of blacks to work for low wages
- Bitterness at the rise in rents which whites believed were a result of the readiness of blacks to live in cramped conditions and therefore pay higher collective rents than individual whites could afford
- White 'teddy boys' who used violence against immigrants becoming 'local heroes' to whites fearful of the growing number of black residents
44
How did the Salmon Report respond to the issue of the Race Riots?
The report approached it as a law and order issue
Put the problem down to white reaction to increased immigration + made no explicit reference to racism or discrimination suffered by immigrants.
45
How did the government act according to the Salmon Report?
Government then acted in the same sprit as the Report- interpreting the order to mean than immigrants need to be controlled
46
What is the Commonwealth Immigrants Act (1962) ?
- Attempt to limit immigration by creating a voucher scheme, restricting the right of entry for those who actually had jobs to go to
- Condemned for being racist
- Limitations on the entry into Britain were necessary in the interest of good race relations
- Rush of immigrants before the terms came into force (1960-62: 230,000 New Commonwealth citizens arrived)
For the first time, GOVT will restrict numbers of immigrants coming from the Commonwealth
47
What is the Commonwealth?
Countries who because independant from GB but wanted to keep ties with them, would join the Commonwealth
○ India was the first Non white country to gain independance from Britain
48
What were the negatives of the Rent Act 1957?
Abolished rent control
Put 6 million properties on market but rents rose a lot so hard for poorer tenants to afford leases
49
What were good economic
developments under Macmillan from 1957-63?
* The availability of credit
- Rising wages
50
What is a Real wage?
wage adjusted with inflation
51
What is the Availability of Credit?
Facility provided by finance companies, enabling people to borrow much larger sums of money than could be obtained by saving
Loan repayment spread over a few years, usually a small amount each month
52
How did rising wages help the population?
Majority of pop gaining material prosperity ( Material wealth) + rise in real wages never overtaken by inflation
EG. rise of wage from £8 6s (£8.30) in 1951 to £18 7s (£18.35) in 1964- 45% increase
Sales of private cars from 50-65 rose from 1.5 million to 5.5 million
53
What were bad economic
developments under Macmillan from 1957-63?
* Budget Politics
* Britain’s Comparative Industrial Growth Rate
* “Stop-Go” and “Stagflation”
Unemployment levels
54
What is Budget politics?
- Criticism for both parties when in opposition
Budgets were too often used as short term measures to buy votes in the general election
55
Which budgets of the time can be seen to be 'vote catching' through budget politics?
Conservative budgets of late 1950's and early 1960's
56
How did the 1959 budget show evidence of budget politics?
Effort to boost support for government in next election by introducing range of tax cuts. At the time, high inflation suggested financial restraint would have been more appropriate
57
What were the effects of the tax cuts in the 1959 budget?
- Resulted in increased consumer spending-> led to higher inflation and wider trade gap
- Then Heathcoat Amory adopted deflationary measures, including tax and interest rate rises, cuts on public spending, attempt to limit wage increases
58
What is Stop Go?
Consumption and prices rose too quickly, government increase taxes and raise interest rates, make it more difficult to borrow. When products and exports declined, government cut taxes and lowered interest rates, make it easier to borrow
59
What is Stagflation?
Stagnation + inflation
Industry declined but inflation persisted, economy suffered
60
When are terms Stop Go and Stagflation used?
The terms were used to denote the failure of governments developing policies to encourage a consistently performing economy
61
What was the impact of the government using Stagflation and Stop Go?
- Policy lagged behind events, leading to the belief that Britain lacked an economic strategy
- The economy was shown to be vulnerable to unforeseeable circumstances
62
Why was Britain's industrial growth rate worrying?
Despite the good economics, a major worry was Britain's poor performance compared to its chief international competition. Its GDP growth rate was the lowest in Western Europe:
Italy- 5.6%
Germany- 5.1%
France-4.3%
UK 2.3%
63
Why was Britain's Industrial growth rate so poor?
There was heavy defence spending. It maintained costly naval and military bases across the world and was involved in an expensive nuclear arms programme.
By 1964 , (the end of the Conservative Government) UK was paying £1.7B (10% of GDP)
In this time Britain was committing a extraordinary proportion (34.5%) of defence on Research and Development (R&D). Only the US was spending more. (40.6%)
64
What were unemployment levels like at the time?
The level of unemployment rose at the end of the 1950s, and while dropping slightly in the early 1960s, reached the record high 800,000 in 1963 (Macmillan's last year in government)
65
What were positives of Conservative economic and social policies?
- Material quality of life was improving for everyone
- Increase of opportunities for poorer people
66
What were negatives of Conservative economic and social policies 51-64?
- Gap between rich and poor widened between 1951-64 in Britain
- Stop Go tactics + Budget politics, not developed coherent economic policies
- Government failure to invest in industrial research and development (10% GDP on defence instead), emphasis on dying 'superpower' status
- no improvement on Britain's employer/ worker relations-> stagflation, poorest growth rates amongst advanced industrial nations in mid- 1960s (2.3% compared to Italy's 5.6%)
- Property owning democracy led to heavy borrowing by government and consumers-> creating economically dangerous debts, encouraging materialism, consumerism and irresponsibility
67
What economic policy did Macmillan's chancellors follow? Did this differ from Labour?
Keynesianism
- but accused of not following properly as kept doing budget politics
Cons tended to be more worried about inflation, Labour more about unemployment
68
Who were the PMs between 1951-64?
1951-5: Winston Churchill
1955-7: Anthony Eden
1957-63: Harold Macmillan
1963-4: Alec Douglas-Home
69
What were key 1955 election results?
Conservative- 344 seats, 49.7% vote share (increase in seats and vote share)
Labour- 277 seats, 46.4% vote share (loss of seats and vote share)
70
What were key 1959 election results?
Conservative: 365 seats, 49.4% vote share (increase seats, loss vote share- FPTP winner)
Labour: 258 seats, 43.8% vote share (loss of seats and vote share, not gaining popularity
Cons majority of 100
71
What was 'Never Had It So Good'?
asserted by Macmillan in July 1957 suggesting a continuous rise of living standards.
72
How did Conservative governments maintain the concept of 'Butskellism'?
The Conservative’s acceptance of a mixed economy and Keynesian economics meant that many of Labour’s aims were continued: maintain full employment and economic growth, expand the welfare state, keep the military defence programme and develop a nuclear weapon’s programme.
73
What was Macmillan's nicknamed in 1958?
Super Mac
74
Why was Macmillan's reputation negatively impacted in the last year of his premiership?
Scandals:
Vassall inquiry spying, and cover-ups suggested a lack of control
Kim Philby revealed as Soviet spy in the heart of the Establishment
Argyll divorce was a lurid court case where the public heard about a government minister allegedly in a pornographic photo.
The Profumo affair involved the minister of war, prostitutes, Soviet embassy, osteopaths and ultimately lies that Macmillan backed suggested the government was faintly ridiculous and outmoded.
75
Who became PM after Macmillan?
Alec Douglas Home
76
Why did Labour lose the 1959 election?
internal divisions, UK’s rising prosperity, poor election campaign.
77
What impact did the 1959 election loss have on the Labour party + its unity?
The election loss intensified internal issues
1960 conference saw victory of left, trade union block vote forced unilateralism as policy, rejected again in 1961.
78
What began the Suez crisis in July 1956?
July 1956: Nasser announced nationalisation so British ships would have to pay despite having a 40% ownership.
Eden began to plan ways to bring Nasser down with France, Israel, USA and the UN Security Council. Diplomat plans failed so secret plans were made.
79
When did the invasion of Egypt happen?
31st of October 1956
80
What events occurred as a result of the 31st of October 1956 invasion of Egypt?
UN immediately entered emergency debates. USA condemned UK actions (fury of Eisenhower and the US -> four letter expletives!). Soviet Union sent a note issuing a threat of rockets.
81
What was the Eden's /UK people reaction to UN + Soviet + USA condemnation of the invasion of Egypt?
EDEN: Eden accepted the UN demand for disengagement
THE PEOPLE: opposition from British people
82
How did the Suez crisis highlight how post war Britain could not act alone?
failure to gain international backing, UN condemnation, reluctance of Commonwealth support and -fall in Britain’s currency reserves.
83
How did Macmillan impact the British Empire?
Macmillan’s ‘wind of change’ speech (1960) recognised the political and moral decision to grant African independence.
1957-68 Britain granted independence to all colonies in Africa and majority of others; mostly smooth bar Kenya and Zimbabwe.
Post WW2 Britain had been the debtor nation, so decolonisation made moral and economic sense.
84
What relationship did Britain have with Europe/EEC from 1957-63?
The Treaty of Rome signed by ‘the Six’ (1957) created the EEC. Labour Party still opposed but failure of EFTA, Suez Crisis and doubts about the ‘special relationship’ led to Macmillan announcing his intent to apply in 1961.
Commonwealth hesitancy led to De Gaulle vetoing in 1963.
85
What was the 1944 Education Act?
Pass the 11+, go to grammar school
Didn't pass, go to Secondary modern
Didn't pass, go to Secondary technical
86
Who built more Comprehensive schools: Conservatives or Labour?
Conservatives
87
Were Attitudes to Race in the early 50s exaggerated or justified?
- People were exaggerating that too many immigrants were coming- net emigration was for a century, every decade up until 1970, net emigration was higher than immigration
88
Why did people begin to dislike immigrants in the early to mid 50s?
- People said the housing shortage (problem in the poorer areas) was due to the immigrants
- Main difficulties arose over accommodations-> immigrants usually took cheaper properties for buying and renting, inner cities had severe affordable housing shortages- increasing competition between low income residents and newcomers.
- Also same problems in the job market: people who couldn't get a job tend to blame immigrants for taking their work at lower pay rates whites were prepared to accept
89
What were the punishments enacted on people for the 1958-9 Race riots?
Short term: severe prison sentences were imposed on white ringleaders who were found guilty of inciting
90
What is a statistic on the Consumer Boom as a result of Availability of Credit?
1950-65: sales of private cars nearly quadrupled from 1.5 million to 5.5 million
- ie rise of the mini, Beatles/celeb endorsement of consumption
91
How did Budget Politics impact the 1964 election?
- Conservative chancellors continues with the restrictive measures till 1964 election
- To regain popularity, Macmillan government in 1963 returned to expansionist budgetary policy-> lowered taxes and interest rates
- Resulted in boom in consumer spending-> sudden demand for goods couldn't be met from British stocks, led to sharp increase in foreign import
- 1964 net result: Balance of payments deficit of over £800 million
92
What was bad about unemployment for the Conservatives?
Dropping unemployment was one of their main aims, they didn't manage to achieve this under Macmillan
1963- unemployment at 800,000+
93
How old was Churchill when he won the 1951 election?
77 years old
- But keen to get back into power
94
Who was Churchill's right hand man?
Butler
95
What was the beginning and end of the Age of Consensus?
- 1945: election, conservatives weren't opposed to the Beveridge report
- 1951 onwards: Didn't change much of what the Atlee government were doing
- End in 1979: Election of Margret Thatcher (she hated consensus)
96
How did miners get funded to become Labour MPs?
- Trade unions funded miners to become Labour MPs
97
Why was the 1955 election called?
Churchill retired due to Old Age
- Conservative MPs chose new leader, not with wider party members
- Churchill indicated Anthony Eden (his foreign secretary), but he was too old and ill by the time he became PM (his tragedy)
- Eden called an election to consolidate his authority
98
What was the result of the 1955 election?
Conservative- 344 seats, 49.7% vote share (increase in seats and vote share)
Labour- 277 seats, 46.4% vote share (loss of seats and vote share)
Cons majority= 58
99
How did the 1955 Conservatives move to the left?
- Wrote the 'Industrial Charter'-> mixed economy
- 1944 education Act
- Continues with Labour's ideas of social reform (more central + left wing), ie NHS, the welfare state
- Kept following Keynesian demand management, but tried to influence with interest rates
100
How did the 1951-55 Conservatives move to the right?
- Denationalised steel (most profitable, so more free market ideas)
- Kept restriction charges on the NHS
Would've been impractical to have dismantled the welfare state
101
Did the 1944 Education Act support his progressive views?
The Education Act outlined the new tripartite system, and was introduced as a way to tackle Beveridge’s giants (ignorance) – this represented the modern change in the party.
102
What was the significance of Butler’s “industrial charter” of 1947?
The industrial charter represented the modernisation of the Conservative party policies, highlighting the importance of trade unions and suggesting a mixed economy of both private industry and state involvement.
103
Did Butler get any benefits from the previous Labour government’s economic policies?
The deflationary policies of Labour had beneficial short term effects, and due to the Marshall Plan, the international economy improved, leading to a demand of British products. The cost of goods decreased and exports increased.
104
What were the principal areas of agreement and disagreement between Butler and Gaitskell?
There was a consensus on matters such as finance, the economy and the welfare state
There was disagreement between them on matters such as high taxation (Gaitskell) and higher interest rates (Butler).
105
How was there 'Butskellian' consensus on economic policy?
Coined in 1954, this phrase reflects the consensus on economic policy between the Chancellor (Butler) and the Shadow Chancellor (Gaitskell): Keynesianism and a mixed economy.
106
How was there conflict on 'Butskellian' Economic Policy?
Gaitskell preferred “tax and spend” Keynesianism (as opposed to Butler’s tinkering with interest rates), suggests a more “socialist” approach from Labour.
107
How was there consensus on Nationalisation with Butskellism?
Conservatives just left the industries nationalised
108
How was there conflict on Nationalisation with Butskellism?
Conservative Minister of Health did not agree with the nationalisation of hospitals, and Conservatives wanted to privatise industry
109
What was the Butskellism consensus on Education?
The Conservatives – unsurprisingly – continued the Tripartite system of education established under the Butler Education Act of 1944.
110
What was the Butskellism conflict on Education?
The Conservatives liked the “rugged individualism” of the Act where as Labour liked the “equality of opportunity” aspect.
111
What was the Butskellism consensus on Health and Welfare?
The NHS continued under the Conservatives. The new Minister for Health – Ian Macleod – had centrist leanings and even received the praise of Aneurin Bevan for his work.
112
What was the Butskellism conflict on Health and Welfare?
The Conservatives kept the prescription charges, which continued to anger the “Bevanite” left of the Labour Party.
113
What did Egypt do in 1875?
Egypt sold shares of canal due to debt + financial crisis
114
What did Egypt do in 1888?
invaded, canal made neutral territory
115
What kind of leader was Egypt's Colonel Nasser?
president in 1922, socialist, pan arab (wanted to unite all arabs), wanted to make Egypt independent
- Disliked Eden as he thought he was weak
116
Why did Colonel Nasser nationalise the Suez Canal?
Nationalised the Suez Canal as he needed money, which he lost from the Americans when he approached the Soviet Union, so the US pulled out
- Can make ships pay to use the canal through Nationalisation
117
Why did Egypt want the Dam?
Need the Aswan Dam for irrigation, and to protect the lives of those who live alongside the Nile
118
What did Nasser do in July 1956?
Nasser nationalisation of Suez Canal
119
What relations did Britain have with Egypt?
- Egypt used to be British colony, but Britain still feels some colonial power over them-> Eden wasn't happy with Nassar+ nationalisation, Suez Canal was main artery to Commonwealth for trade, Britain relied heavily on the canal to access India + countries in Asia in the Empire
- Promised loans to Egypt for the Dam
120
Who did Britain have secret discussions with about Suez?
- Eden had secret discussion with France + Israel to lead joint attack
121
When did Eden become PM?
1955
122
Did Britain want to fight a 'Colonial war' with Egypt?
- Britain didn't want to use force, but didn't want Nassar to win + take control-> Nassar felt he was fighting a colonial war
SO Britain was secretly trying to invade Egypt with France and Israel- Unable to keep this from America
123
What was France's stance on the Suez Crisis?
- France strongly supported Britain (especially as France built canal), France angry with Egypt's involvement in helping Algerian rebels against French rule (Nasser supplied arms). French leader personally against Colonel Nasser
124
What was Israel's stance on the Suez Crisis?
- Israel- Leader, Ben Gurion, led country to victory against war with Egypt. He was anti-Nassar.
David Ben Gurion (Israeli leader who had beat Arab nations in 1948) worried about number of Soviet arms Egypt getting from Czechoslovakia
125
How did the USA feel about Nasser?
Eisenhower did not like Nasser
126
Why did Eisenhower withdraw his offer to Egypt of a loan for Suez?
- Withdrew original offer for loan after he learned Nassar approached the soviet bloc of countries for aid
- Joined in increasing pressure on Egypt, formed the Canal Users Association with Britain and France
127
How did the USA try to stop Britain from invading/causing international tension with Suez?
wrote to Eden asking for no military use
128
What is the Suez Canal?
- Suez Canal, built by the French around 1860s/70s(when France and Britain were both involved in Egypt
- Canal allowed easy access to India, rather than the previously long, dangerous travel journey
Still used today
129
Why did the Suez Crisis 1956 occur?
- Egypt leader promised by US + Britain of loans for construction
- Nasser nationalised, so foreign ships would have to pay to pass through, to build a dam + approached the Soviet bloc for aid: US withdrew original offer
America, Britain + France joined against Nasser to free the canal
130
How does the US feel about Britain and France invading Egypt in 1956?
- US felt ignored by Eden by Israel, France + UK invading in 1956
- US stops backing Britain, Britain vetoes ceasefire
131
Why does the US dislike the idea of conflict/invasion of Egypt?
don't want to escalate Cold War so want to avoid conflict, if invade Egypt, USSR could get involved creating conflict. USA beaten down by Korean War (Spent lots of money)
Disliked the British Empire
Didn't like the link to Soviets
- Don't want to give money
- Don't want another conflict
US election on Tuesday 1st November:
- Difficult for Eisenhower to respond, election on the first week of November, and get votes
132
How did Nasser react to British bombing in Egypt and why?
Nasser remained publicly positive during British bombings
Wants money to build the Aswan dam + create HEP, can get this from nationalising
133
What happened on the 29th October 1956?
Israel invaded Egypt- PLANNED as combination military invasion of Egypt
134
What was the British-French-Israeli plan for invasion of Egypt on the 29th October 1956?
PLAN FOR Israel to attack first at Sinai, then once time had passed for them to reach the canal, Britain and France would attack the canal region from the north, then to force a ceasefire once the canal is given over.
135
How did Britain + France react after Israel invaded Egypt?
Eden threatened Egypt with an invasion
30th Oct- Britain + France ultimatum
31st Oct: Britain and France invaded Egypt to keep peace
attempt to depose Nassar and regain control of the Suez canal after Nassar nationalised it
136
How did the US feel about the British-French-Israeli invasion of Egypt in October 1956?
US condemns the force used against Egypt
137
When was the British invasion of the actual Suez area?
1st November 1956
138
How did Britain react to the UN demanding a ceasefire post 1st November invasion 1956?
Britain, now deprived of US backing, used veto for first time to defeat UN resolution demanding a ceasefire
139
Which stakeholders were pressuring Britain for an immediate ceasefire?
the UN, US and Soviet Union
140
How did the USA react after Israel invaded Egypt on the 29th November 1956?
Eisenhower wrote to Eden following morning asking why Britain won't call Israel to their actions
-Eisenhower publicly said that USA unaware of invasion, which was untrue, and that force shouldn't be used to settle disputes
141
What happened at the 31st October UN debate on Suez?
where the Americans are annoyed Eden ignored them-> condemned Israel, Britain, France
142
What did the Soviet Union do in October 1956 that made it hard for the USA to criticise them and support B+F+E as Britain, France and Egypt had lost their moral highground?
Soviet Union invaded Hungary + stopped Hungarian rising going on
Distraction from the main issue of the USSR
Close to the election, helping the British and French would have made it hard to get re elected
143
What happened on the 5th November 1956?
Formal note from USSR to Britain condemning the invasion with Israel and France into Egypt, prepared to send rockets against the western invaders
144
What happened on the 6th November 1956?
Eden accepted UN demand for disengagement
145
Why did Eden withdraw from Suez on the 6th November 1956?
- Strength of opposition amongst British people, Gaitskell + Bevan
- Fury of president Eisenhower and the Americans not being consulted
- Britain's failure to gain international backing
- Condemnation of Britain at the UN
- Reluctance of all but a few Commonwealth countries to support Britain
International 'run on sterling' (catastrophic fall in British currency reserves, caused by large withdrawals of deposits by international investors), threatening Britain with economic collapse + no prospect of USA willing to bail out
146
When did Eden step down as PM?
Stepped down in January 1957- due to 'Ill health'
147
How were American-British relations weakened during the Suez Crisis?
Eisenhower wants to present to the UN to take action against Israel with the UK, but he finds out France, Israel and UK have an agreement. Weakens ties with US
- UK refuses US request for UN meeting to force Israelis out of Egypt.
UK vetoed UN security council resolution from stopping all member states from using military force
(ie voted against US)
148
What happened in the Middle East post Suez?
Nasser became a hero in the Middle East (considered to have defeated France, England and Israel)
Arab nationalism swept through the Middle East
149
Was the Run on Sterling a imminent Threat to Eden?
Macmillan (Chancellor of the Exchequer)
- May have overstated the Run off Sterling, as it would lead to Eden's resignation
150
How legitimate was the USSR threat sent by note?
Unlikely that USSR would've dared to carry out threat to directly attack Britain + its forces
USSR was only able to say that due to Britain's international isolation (lack of support from British people, USA, UN, the economy, Commonwealth countries)
151
What was the only reason to suggest that the Suez Crisis was not a failure?
Britain would've won the war if the rest of the countries allowed them
152
Why was Eden's strategy undiplomatic + sloppy?
Eden shouldn't have gone into it without planning to finish it
Also could've avoided this by being diplomatic
Trying to grip onto the last senses of being a colonial power + international power
Nasser's power over the Arab world was probably exaggerated- could've solved the issue at a smaller scale
153
What were examples of Eden's poor perceptions of the Suez crisis, leading to it to be such a failure?
- Deep distaste for Nasser (who he saw in the mould of European dictators of the 1930's-> Mussolini, Hitler), wanted to strike out a dictator before he got too strong
- Anxious for the maintenance of the essential oil supplies
- Believed Nasser's campaign to modernise Egypt lay an essentially anti-British motive
- Concluded the only way to stop Nasser was by military force
He mistook the initial collective British and Western disapproval of invasion of the canal as implied support for any moves he may initiate, colluding with France and Israel to invade and topple Nasser
- Didn't try to hide distaste for those who he disagreed with: USA, failed to appreciate the upcoming election + American government was unprepared to be involved in more costly, military venture that echoed of imperialism
Eden's poor chronic health at the time weakened his judgement, also deteriorating further through the crisis
154
What did British forces withdrawing from Suez in November 1956 when they were on the verge of successfully completing their mission show about the defensive state of the country?
- Israelis were bitter they left the job half done-> poor international reputation and diplomatic links
- Withdrawal was a failure of political will (fears of international isolation + consequences, Britain could no longer continue)
Post war Britain couldn't act alone
155
How was the Suez Crisis the last act of British Imperialism?
By attacking Egypt, Britain acted independently of NATO, the USA, without consulting the Commonwealth or the UN
156
How could it be argued that Eden was not to blame for the Suez Crisis?
America should have been firmer
Loss of colonial power wasn't Eden's fault
157
How was Eden himself to blame for the Suez Crisis?
Poor judgement
Wasn't a strong power, caused Eden to resign (weak)
158
What were positives of the Suez Crisis for Britain?
Stopped Britain from doing it again- people thought about conflict before immediately charging into it
Nasser softened his policy a little: did cause some change
The government + Labour started to consider close relationships with Europe: realised they couldn't survive alone on the global stage
159
What was the main international downfall of Suez?
Showed Britain's weakness as a Imperial power + embarrassed the country on the international stage
made an enemy out of all other countries, wasting time, resources etc, created damage for no reason-> foolish, embarrassing debacle
160
How was Macmillan's Foreign Policy an example of Consensus politics?
Conservatives took a predominant role in dismantling the British empire
- Accepting the implications of Attlee's government decision to grant India independence in 1947, Macmillan's government continues this process
161
How did Conservatives feel about dismantling the British Empire?
Protests in the right wing of the party (ie bodies like League of Empire Loyalists), but Conservatives still came to recognise the broad agreement in post war Britain that the age of imperialism had passed
162
Why did the Conservatives see that the Age of Imperialism had passed?
- 2 World wars fought for the rights of people to be free made it no longer acceptable for any nation to impose itself on another and control its people against their will
- Failure of Suez emphasises this
163
What speech did Macmillan give in 1960?
'wind of change' blowing through Africa
- Made speech in White dominated South Africa, apartheid- a system enshrining the idea certain people and races were incapable of governing themselves- delivering the message to them was significant
164
What did Macmillan mean by 'winds of change'?
- Growing national consciousness of African people-> politically realistic and moral policy was to grant independence to those who wanted it
165
How were the 'winds of change' carried out?
1957-68: Britain gave independence to all remaining colonies in Africa and majority elsewhere. Despite protest of white settlers, it was a mostly smooth process
166
What was a trend in the way Britain gave out independence as it declared the 'Age of Imperialism' over?
Britain gave white colonies (ie Canada, Australia) more dependence earlier on- calling them a dominion
- South Africa didn't need to fight for as much independence as it already had it, due to majority white population
167
When did Kenya become independent?
1963
168
Was there any problems in granting independence?
- Problems less with the idea of independence but when is should be granted, ie in Kenya, clashes between British forces + Kenyan nationalists (13,000 native Kenyan deaths + 100 Europeans)-> Mau Mau uprising
169
What was an exception to the peaceful transition to independence?
Rhodesia (Zimbabwe)
170
Why was there problems with transitioning to independence in Rhodesia?
White settler community held political power, refused to accept principles of 'Majority rule' + 'one person, one vote', claiming it would give authority to backward black Africans, incapable of exercising their rule responsibly.
171
After failing to negotiate with British governments, how Rhodesia govern itself?
- Declared UDI (Unilateral Declaration of Independence) in 1965 after failing to reach agreement with successive British governments, PM, leader of white Rhodesian Front party, Ian smith (Rhodesia PM)- continuing apartheid
- Next 15 years, it defied international condemnation, taking form of economic sanctions ie embargo on Tobacco, one of its most profitable exports
172
What was the end of White Settlers Rule in Rhodesia?
- Eventually sanctions + civil war between Black African guerrilla righters + white settlers in Rhodesia forced Smith to the conference table. Thatcher's government opposed sanctions + produced new settlement accepting majority rule
- Free election in 1980 saw victory for Robert Mugabe, a freedom fighter against UDI, adopting new nation name Zimbabwe
173
What problems remained in Rhodesia after independence?
- Main problem remained after independance of how long Black Zimbabweans would tolerate possession of the best land by minority white farmers-> President Mugabe introduced policy of dispossessing white farmers and redistributing the land amongst followers-> was accompanied with violence, which came to be a feature of Mugabe's rule, adopting increasingly dictatorial measures
174
Why was Mugabe's rule in Rhodesia destructive?
- Efforts to reconstruct Zimbabwe along Marxist economy lines led to spoliation of the country
- Rampant inflation destroying their currency, reducing 2/3 of the population to starvation level. He was criticised by Western observers, like Britain, USA, EU but Mugabe said he wouldn't take lectures from former colonial exploiters
Imperial guilt meant ex colonial power countries didn't interfere.
175
Did Britain economically lose out from dismantling the empire?
- Suffered serious economic loss but Imperial balance sheet reveals Britain as a nation paid out more in grants and aid than it got back in profit. Despite the charge that Britain continually drained its colonies of its resources, figures indicate from 1870 to independence in 1947, Britain on a yearly average took less than 1% India's net GDP
176
How much debt did Britain owe the colonies post ww2?
- End of war 1945: Britain agreed in 1940 to pay all of India's war costs, owing £1200 million, so it was now a debtor nation-> same story with colonies overall, being in debt to all of them at the end of the war of £454 million
177
Was Britain a net gainer or loser as an empire?
Individuals and companies may have made profit, but overall Britain was a net loser-> Empire was abandoned because it was costing too much not because it was making too little, couldn't afford to remain a colonial power, heavily reliant on the USA for financial aid
178
What impact did Decolonisation have on the British people?
- May have also damaged Britain's morale + left people feeling diminished-> BUT Macmillan didn't repeat how great decolonisation was, and tried to pretend they weren't as he didn't want people to think Britain wasn't as great, lack of education of the British people.
179
What were positive impacts of decolonisation for Britain?
- Was regarded as the logical and mature thing to do to give up colonies
Drove Britain closer to EuropeW
180
What was weak about Britain's decolonisation process?
Could criticise a lack of framework for the decolonisation
- It didn't undo the damage Britain did colonially, White settlers may still have felt more privileged
- USA and USSR used this as a proxy war, maybe leading to civil wars and less peace in African states
- Was too brutal in Kenya
181
Why did countries like the USA + USSR support decolonisation?
Post WW2, general consensus that other people shouldn't be forced into imperialism
Became too expensive + hard and expensive to fight against armed uprising in countries that wanted independance
Suez failed- pushed narrative to the people that imperialism is failing
182
What is the EEC?
- European Economic Community
183
What was the status of the EEC in 1945?
- Germany, France, Benelux (Belgium, Netherlands, Luxembourg) , Italy + UK
Labour and Conservative were initially in agreement not to join the EEC
184
What policies was the EEC set up with in 1957?
1. Common iron and steel policies ensured all EEC members would develop
2. Common agricultural policy guaranteed food security and farmers' economic security by stockpiling surpluses so prices remained stable
3. Customs Union/Free Trade Area
185
What is the Theory of Competitive Advantage?
each country focuses on what they are good at producing, industries are more developed, reduced losses.
186
What economic relationship do EEC members have with Non EEC members?
Non member states of the EEC- has to have protectionist policies/import duties that are not in the EEC
- problem for Britain with the Commonwealth
187
Why would the EEC be economically sustainable/competitive?
Abolishing import duties will increase trade due to the Theory of Comparative Advantage. Countries focus on what they are good at producing (ie French at their cheese)
EEC operating as a custom union means each country is a free trade area. They put up a protectionist policy for countries that weren't part of the EEC, putting tariffs on their imports.
188
What Treaty established the EEC?
1957 Treaty of Rome
189
What was the CAP (Common Agricultural Policy)?
- Notion of ending rural poverty though system where 'poor areas' in the community were to be subsidies by transfer of money from 'rich areas'
- Provided famers will guaranteed prices for produces regardless of cost or demand= high prices for consumers
- Slightly controversial aspect of EEC
190
What role did each country play in terms of political control in the EEC?
- EEC dominated by Germany and France. Germany motivated to re establish itself after Nazi past as respectable nation, France motivated by fear of a resurgent Germany + can control them in formal organisation than compete seperately against it
- Other 4 members, judged post war years offered opportunity to extract as many economic concessions as possible from Germany- best achieved through a federations in a European Union
191
What was Britain's attitude 1952-63 on the EEC?
- No experience of occupation from hostile war power in war time
- Not convinces the 6 countries needed a formal European Union to preserve peace
- 1950: Pressed to join the Schuman Plan-> Attlee rejected it, didn't want to share vital economic forced of Britain to another authority
- Conservatives + Labour in consensus, Macmillan also rejected the risks to the British economy by joining
- Governments post WW2 felt Britain's economic future remained in its relationship with the US, not Europe
192
What was Britain's attitude to the EEC in 1962?
Gaitskell rejected joining the EEC, but Conservative government were beginning to consider joining to the EEC
193
What failures during the 50s to 60s made Britain reconsider joining the EEC?
- 50s-60s: poor performance of British economy compared to EEC countries
- Failure of EFTA to match economic success of EEC (Set up in 1959 as free trade counter balance to EEC (protectionist))-> never able to match EEC influence, by 1972, most members joined EEC
- Suez failure questioned British status as independant world power, raised doubts about its relationship with America
- Difficulty remaining an independent nuclear force-> advance in weapon technology meant method of delivering weapons by bombers were outmoded-> began to buy US Polaris submarines to maintain strike power
- Decline within Conservative Party of traditionally influential agricultural lobby, replaced by younger, city orientated managerial types-> pro European
- Not moved by becoming a European unity, but feared being left behind economically by European competitors
194
What moves did Macmillan make to try to join the EEC?
- Macmillan appointed Edward Heath as minister for special responsibility of negotiation with 'the six'
- 1961: Macmillan declared government was considering applying to join the EEC, promising Britain would only join on condition that existing privileges and interest of EFTA and Commonwealth would be preserves
If Britain joins the EEC, free trade will still be allowed between Britain and Commonwealth countries like India.
195
Why did Britain fail to join the EEC in 1963?
- 1963: De Gaulle vetoed (French President) Britain joining-> he was anti American, appalled at 1940 French humiliation depending on USA and British Arms. Independant of Britain and America, saw EEC as a way of achieving his objective, Britain joining would threaten this, saw EEC as counterbalance to American power.
December 1962- De Gaulle and Macmillan failed to reach Anglo-French understanding on nuclear arms development
196
Why did Labour split from 1951 onwards?
Socio economic policy:
- Bevanites wanted no prescription charges and high taxes, more nationalisation.
Opposed to centrists like Gaitskell who took over from Attlee 1955
- Bevanites also wanted unilateralist nuclear disarmament supporters-> UK should disarm nukes regardless of what other countries did. Some pacifist, some USSR supporters, currently behind in the arms race ('fellow travellers', ie secret communist)
197
Did Gaitskell ever become PM?
- Gaitskell defeated unilateral disarmers by 1961, helped by Campaign for Democratic socialism. Became ill in 1963, retired. Never got a chance to become PM, Wilson elected leader
198
What were the results of the 1959 election?
1959 election:
Conservatives- 365 seats, gained 21 seats
Labour 258 seats, lost 19 seats
Conservatives Increased overall Commons majority form 58 to 100
199
Did Labour have poor leadership between 1951-63?
- A reason why Conservatives remained in office for so long after 1951 (poor condition of the Labour Party= disunited)
- Gaitskell was a worthy leader, but died in 1963 so never became PM + became Labour party leader during one of its most disruptive periods-> undecided on aims and identity as a party ie Left of the party argued for more commitment to state control, like the welfare state.
200
What were the Bevanites demands?
- Wanted large trade unions: spoke for the working class, led by committed left wingers, major voice in shaping party policy
- Unilateralists on the left: some felt patriotism, not wanting the burden of expenses of nuclear arms production on Britain, diverting resources from providing for the underprivileged. Others felt Soviet Union shouldn't fall too far behind in the arms race with the West
CND movement (Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament)- attracted anti american and pro soviet
201
How did Gaitskell respond to the Bevanites?
Gaitskell resisted both trade union domination and drive towards unilateralism as party leader (representing moderate centre right)
- Believed victory over Bevan in 1955 leadership election gave him authority to steer party away from policies that alienated from the electorate, convinced more by this after 1959 election
202
What were the predictions before the 1959 election?
- Before election, Labour was in favour to win
- First election since Suez affair, chance for electorate to punish Conservative government
In hindsight, opinion polls may have been exaggerated
203
How did the 1959 election come at a good time for Conservatives + Bad time for Labour?
- Election came at a bad time for Labour as it coincided with period of economic recovery, presented as due to Macmillan government policies by Conservative propaganda (conservative strength)
- 'Never had it so good' equated to 'life is better with the Conservatives. Don't let Labour ruin it'
204
How did Labour manifesto policy fail to impress the electorate in the 1959 election?
- Labour campaigners tried to impress voters with promising a scheme to increase state pensions without a tax rise-> raised questions about how to pay for it, ended up embarrassing Labour candidates.
205
What did Gaitskell announce about the Labour party + EEC in 1962?
- 1962: Gaitskell followed Attlee, announcing Labour as against joining the EEC, didn't seem progressive and forward looking as a party, suggesting he adopted the wrong stance by members in the party
206
What was the Labour party damaged by that led to their defeat in the 1959 election?
- Disagreements over party character
- Divisions over how far the party should push socialist policies like nationalisation
- Split over unilateralism
- Uncertainty over joining the EEC
207
What was Labour's reaction to the 1959 election defeat?
- Gaitskell accused left of party of weakening the movement by demand for unilateralism
- Left attacked him over betrayal of party principle by dropping nationalism as primary goal
- Some right defended him for forming CDS, arguing it was undemocratic and improper for left to use influence with leaders of the large trade unions, such as transport and general workers, to put their minority extremist views on the party, when the majority of the members were moderates
- 1960: climax at party conference to impose unilateralism, relying on the block vote of major unions, unilateralists forced the policy on the party
208
Why did the Conservatives seem more attractive in the 1959 election, leading to their success?
Strength of the Opposition: “Butskellism”, Churchill and Macmillan’s spin…
Memories of “austerity Britain” vs. “Never had it so good” socio-economic context…
209
What was the Profumo Affair 1963?
March 1963: John Profumo, Macmillan's Minister of War has a sexual liason with Christine Keeler, a prostitute who had many members of the Soviet embassy among her clients
- Obvious national security risk, seized by the media
- Profumo declared in House of Commons there was no truth in the rumours, but then admitted 3 months later to lying in parliament
- Resigned but the disgrace spread beyond him, implicating government and the Conservative party
210
What is the background for the Profumo Affair?
- Profumo first met Keeler at Cliveden, country house used as high class brothel by DR Stephen Ward, osteopath who used contact to procure girls for upper class men
- Ward was a popular doctor, associated with many Conservatives, party was damaged by association, even though most were genuine patients
- Ward was put on trial, charged with living off immoral earnings, leading to his suicide rather than him facing the consequences of the trial
- Keeler was found guilty at a separate trial of perjury and sentenced to 9 months imprisonment
211
What was the political impact of the 1963 Profumo Affair?
Macmillan believed Profumo's initial denial suggested PM was losing political grip
Macmillan believed he should be criticised for believing the word of a friend and colleague who said there was no truth in the rumours
Media argued it was a moral issue, and the scandal was more than the Minister lying, but reflected the character of British public institutions and government
Scandal emphasises that after 12 years the Conservatives were weak in leading the nation
212
Why were there lots of British Communists?
▪ USSR had given lots to eliminate Nazi occupation - feeling of solidarity post-war
Didn't believe that Stalin was murdering millions in the Red Terror
213
What were Labour Weaknesses until 1963?
▪ Split over socio-economic policy from 1951: Bevanites represented the left wing calling for futher nationalisation and higher taxes, named after Bevan who was involved in setting up the NHS as the health minister, opposed centrist Gaitskell who took over from Attlee in 1955
▪ Bevanites also believed in unilateralist nuclear disarmement, meaning that UK should disarm regardless of other countries. Some of them were genuinely pacifists, but some were supporters of the USSR who were behind in the arms race (known as 'fellow travellers' - secret communists) - unpopular with voters, holding the Labour party back
▪ Uncertainty over whether Britain should join the EEC
214
Which parties merged in the 1959 election?
Social Democratic party merge with Liberals to form the Liberal Democrats
215
What was the Kim Philby Scandal 1963?
▪ January 1963, it was revealed that for decades, Kim Philby had been passing crucial government information to the USSR as well as running a spy network and recruiting new spies
▪ He ran away to Moscow after being discovered and never returned to Britain
▪ Burgess and McClane were two other spies recruited, who were discovered before Philby
Lead to scepticism around upper class and homophobia
216
What happened at the Labour 1960 and 61 Party Conferences?
1960 Party conference- Unilateralists able to rely on block vote of the major unions, they imposed the policy on the party. Gaitskell publicly stated that to adopt this unilateralist position would go against the views of the electorate and would be political suicide
- 1961 conference agreed to drop unilateralism as party policy
