Britain 1970-79 Flashcards
(199 cards)
1
Q
What feminist conference happened in 1970?
A
National WLM conference, Oxford (Women’s Liberation movement)
2
Q
What were the first 4 WLM demands?
A
- Equal pay
2. Equal educational and job opportunities
3. Free contraception and abortion on demand - Free 24-hour nurseries
3
Q
What Key feminist act passed in 1970?
A
Equal Pay Act 1970 – men and women same wage for same job but lots of loopholes
4
Q
What feminist refuge was created in 1971?
A
First women’s refuge for women fleeing domestic violence
5
Q
What feminist media was created in 1972?
A
First edition feminists magazine ‘Spare Rib’
6
Q
What feminist institution was created in 1973?
A
First rape crisis centre set up
7
Q
What feminist Acts passed in 1975?
A
Sex Discrimination Act
Employment Protection Act
8
Q
What did the Sex Discrimination Act 1975 do?
A
certain kinds of sex discrimination and discrimination on the ground of marriage rendered unlawful + established a Commission to work towards the elimination such discrimination and promote equality of opportunity between men and women
9
Q
What did the Employment Protection Act 1975 do?
A
illegal to dismiss someone on grounds of pregnancy
10
Q
What feminist movement occurred in 1977?
A
Reclaim the Night march
11
Q
How did the WLM become split?
A
WLM split between radical feminism, patriarchy is the main oppressor and socialist feminism, capitalism is the main oppressor
12
Q
What feminist group formed in 1979?
A
Southall Black Sisters formed
13
Q
What feminist group formed in 1980?
A
300 Group founded
The ‘all party’ 300 Group was formed to campaign and lobby for equal representation of women in Parliament and public office. 300 is roughly half the number of seats in the House of Commons.
14
Q
What were Wilson’s main economic policy moments?
A
Devaluation
- Change from industrial to post industrial economy, shrinking of manufacturing industry + growth of finance and service industry
- 1964 National Plan abandoned by 1967
- Prices and Income Board 1965:
○ Set prices for bread, soap and road haulage
○ Recommended wage rises in individual sectors like car prices
- In place of Strife, hopes the trade unions would keep to a minimum wage rise demand
- Roy Jenkins economic policy good, didn’t do budget politics towards the election
- Wanted to control inflation (workers demanding above inflation price rises which would fuel further inflation)
15
Q
Who was the main employer under Wilson and how did this relate to Trade union strength?
A
Government is often the employer- ie telecoms, Thomas Cook (travel agency), railways, water, mines, gas, electricity
- Trade unions were strong-> government employed workers but still struggled to control them
16
Q
What years was Heath PM between?
A
1970-73
17
Q
How was Heath known by opposition and in the media due to his free market economic policy?
A
Selsdon man
18
Q
What were Heath’s economic visions?
A
- Imaginary anti Keynesian, pro market, individual
- Similar aims to Wilson- expansive policies, reduce rise in prices, increase productivity, reduce unemployment BUT wanted to break consensus (since 1945) on economic and social state intervention
19
Q
What type of Conservatism did Heath present
A
- New type of Conservatism, ‘New Right’, advocated for in the run up to the 70 election
- 1970 Selsdon Park party strategy conference: agreed to promote largely hands off approach in government matters to encourage new freedom to promote own interests
- Labour branded it as a right wing reaction
20
Q
What are Market Forces?
A
natural laws of supply and demand operating without interference by government
21
Q
What is the TUC?
A
trade union congress
- Umbrella of unions
- Told all unions to boycott the register
22
Q
What year was the Conservative election victory under Heath?
A
1970
23
Q
What year was the Industrial Relations Act?
A
1971
24
Q
What year did the UK formally enter the EEC?
A
1973
25
What year was the Heath government defeated in election + Wilson became PM?
1974
26
What year was the referendum on EEC membership?
1975
27
What year did Callaghan succeed Wilson as PM + IMF crisis?
1976
28
What year was the Lib Lab pact?
1977
29
What years were the Winter of Discontent?
1978-79
30
What year was Labour's election defeat?
1979
31
Why did Heath call an election in 1974?
Following the NUM’s second strike in early 1974 Heath called an immediate election on the issue of who ran the country: the miners of the government ('Who governs?')
32
Why did Heath lose the Feb 1974 election?
- Rapid inflation made holding down prices impossible.
- Wage settlements and lost orders caused by strikes resulted in a decline in productivity.
- Unemployment reached new levels (628,000 in 1974)
- Three-day week suggested the government had lost control
33
What is an overall look at the 1979 election?
- severe economic problems
- Callaghan is accused of letting things drift; failure to call an election in autumn of 1978.
- Government had been damaged by economic and financial crises, rising unemployment, combative trade unions
- political misjudgements + treatment of minority parties – the Liberals and SNP
34
What were the results of the 1970 election?
Conservative: 330 seats, 46.4% vote
Labour: 287 seats, 43% vote
35
What were the results of the 1974 FEB election?
Labour: 301 seats, 37.1% vote
Conservatives: 297 seats, 37.9% vote
36
What were the results of the 1974 OCT election?
Labour: 319 seats, 39.2% vote
Conservatives: 277 seats, 35.8% vote
37
What were the results of the 1979 election?
Conservatives: 339 seats, 43.9% vote
Labour: 269 seats, 36.9 % vote
38
What were social failures under Heath?
- Restrictive three-day week, similar to austerities of wartime and the late 1940s. - Electricity blackouts interfered with industrial production and left ordinary people without light and heating for long periods.
- People had to sit in candlelight, unable to cook, listen to the radio or watch television.
39
How did Britain enter Europe in 1973?
Following De Gaulle’s retirement Britain was invited to reapply. Heath told his party that the economic situation made it essential that Britain become a member.
Signed the Treaty of Accession in 1972 and became a full member in 1973.
40
On what terms did Britain enter Europe in 1973?
Due to its late entry, it could not negotiate from a position of strength. For example, the EEC demanded that commonwealth food and goods could no longer enter on preferential terms.
41
What was the International Oil Price rise in 1973?
Early 1960s- OPEC members began to establish greater control impacting the steady supply of cheap fuel into the UK. Due to the Arab-Israeli war (1973)- countries deemed to support Israel were restricted in the amount and price of oil; prices increased from $2 to $35 per barrel.
42
What were the economic effects of the Oil Crisis 1973?
The result was rapid and severe inflation throughout the industrial world; Britain suffered a severe recession.
Economic effects in the UK:
- Balance of payments deficit rose to £1 billion, 16% inflation, value of sterling dropped to $1.57 and unemployment doubled between 1974-76.
43
How did Heath aim to govern like a 'Selsdon Man'?
Heath entered office declaring that he was adopting a ‘new style of government’ that he intended ‘to reduce the rise in prices, increase in productivity and reduce unemployment’. He wanted to break with the post-war consensus, with regard to state intervention in economic and social matters. This new type of Conservatism, the ‘new right’ was announced at Selsdon Park.
44
What reforms did Heath's government between 70-74 achieve for local government?
Peter Walker set in place sweeping reforms that reshaped the structure of local government and destroyed many historical administrative landmarks. There were protests as many saw it as an attack on local identity.
45
What was Heath's U-Turn?
Inflation had risen to 15% by the end of 1971 and declining industrial output meant the government couldn’t continue. So, it announced a return to controlling prices and incomes and reversing its approach to ‘lame ducks’.
Rolls-Royce and Upper Clyde Shipbuilders were struggling and so were nationalised in 1971 and sustained by government grants.
45
Who were the PMs between 70-79?
70-74: Heath
74-76: Wilson (2nd term)
76-79: Callaghan
46
What were Heath's problems with the Unions?
Heath had to appeal to the unions to cooperate to solve their common problems but it was too late following the Industrial Relations Act. The unions had refused to register which made it impossible to enforce the Act. The government appeared incompetent as a result and so the more combative unions increased their demands. Days lost to strikes in 1974 totalled 14,750,000.
47
What was the 3 day week under Heath?
Led by Arthur Scargill, the miners had gone on strike in 1972 effectively using flying pickets. Rather than give in to the miners, Heath hoped to defeat them by imposing severe limits on the use of fuel. Heath calculated that the government would be able to survive the strike longer; he was wrong. When the miners’ dispute was finally settled, the NUM gained a 21% wage increase. Emboldened by its success the NUM called another strike in 1974. This was too much for Heath who called an immediate election.
48
What was Heath's Industrial Relations Act 1971?
it was an extension of ‘In Place of Strife’; where market forces would be allowed to operate and trade unions were not to have unfair advantages.
-restricted the right of workers to strike
-National Industrial Relations Court (NIRC) created to judge validity of strike action.
- Unions required to go on government register.
49
Who was John Davis and what was his role in Heath's government?
as head of the new department of trade and industry (DTI) was to encourage giving freer rein to market forces. He was against helping ‘lame ducks’.
50
Who was Anthony Barber and what was his role in Heath's government?
Chancellor of the Exchequer; early measures included:
Income tax cuts
Reductions in government spending Scrapping Prices and Incomes Board
Cuts in subsidies paid to local authorities – including withdrawal of free milk for school children by secretary for education: ‘Margaret Thatcher, milk snatcher’.
51
What did Heath do that pleased the Trade unions?
Abolished NPIB (National Prices and Incomes Board)
52
What did Heath do that angered the Trade unions?
BUT then attempted to pass strict Industrial Relations Act 1971 (angered trade unions)
53
How did Heath extend 'In Place of Strife'?
○ Restricted right of workers to strike with new concept of 'unfair industrial practices'
○ National Industrial Relations Court (NIRC) with authority to judge the validity of strike action, was created
○ Unions were required to put themselves on a government register if they wanted to retain legal rights
54
How did Heath's government change regulations on trade unions?
- Abandoned incomes policy- not seeking wage and salary freeze or interfere with pay settlements
- Allowed market forces to operate, allowing free bargaining between empowers and workers
- To make it fair, couldn't permit trade unions unfair advantages so introduced 1971 Industrial Relations Act
55
What is CBI?
Confederation of British Industry
- Represented Britain's leading manufacturers and industrialists
Officially, politically neutral, tended to side with Conservatives
56
What was the new Department of Trade and Industry?
- Give freer reign to market forces
- Appointed John Davies as head- unconventional politician, previous director of CBI
- End subsidies to 'lame duck' industries (poorly performing companies and businesses, not using public money to help them out)
57
Who was Anthony Barber?
Chancellor of the Exchequer
58
What was Barber's economic reforms?
Cut income taxes, Cut government spending
- Scrapped Prices and Incomes Board
- Cuts in government spending led to rise in council house rents following reduction in local authority subsidies->
- Withdrawal of free milk for school children by Margret Thatcher, Education Minster ('MT, milk snatcher')
failure for public relations
59
What did Labour condemn about the Conservatives economic policy?
○ Abandoning the mixed economy, weakening the welfare state, undermining the principles of full employment, putting economic calculation before social improvement
60
What was the Barber Boom?
- Sharp increase in economic growth in 1972-3
- Reached post war high (9.6% in 1973)
61
What is the NUM?
National Miners Union
62
Why were the mines important?
- Coal was main source of power
Not much use of gas
63
What are Flying Pickets?
Going to other mines and convincing others from other areas
Mass picket
64
Why was Saltey Gate important?
Coking plant + huge storage place
- Bottleneck, effective as stops all the mines in the area from working
- Coke wasn't getting out to the power plants, danger electricity was going to be cut off across the country
- So the government gave in
65
What is a Cartel?
Organisations all agree that they all put their prices up
66
What is Hung Parliament/Minority Government?
no party wins the majority of the seats
67
Why was Heath forced to take a U turn?
- 18 months later, inflation risen 15% by end of 1971
- Due to trade unions strikes and demands
- Declining industrial output destroyed the government's confidence in the original policy
68
How did Heath take a U turn?
- 1972- government announced in attempt to counter inflation, returned to policy of controlling price and incomes (GOES BACK ON HIS PAIB)
- Also abandoned government non interference in industrial matters-> DTI began to help the 'lame ducks'
- Rolls Royce hit hard times (one of Britain's largest companies)- orders were falling + haemorrhaging money at alarming rates, so government nationalised it in 1971 rather than see it fall (historical beacon on Britain's industrial genius and managerial expertise), now sustained by government grants
- Subsidies granted to other private companies in difficulties like Upper Clyde Shipbuilders, threat of the company forcing to close due to worker resistance
- Government feared industrial action of Communist Unionists (ie Jimmy Reid)-> government backed down and authorised a subsidy of £34 million to be paid to keep the company going
69
What battle does Heath have with the miners between 1971 and 1972 about strikes and pay rises?
1971: Miners given 14% pay increase (inflation= 7%)
January 1972: first miners strikes begins in rejection of Government's offer of 8% pay increase, and as protest against pit closures
February 1972: Miners win Battle of Saltley Gate (using 'flying pickets' under the guidance of Arthur Scargill. Miners gain 21% pay increase)
70
What policy does the government implement on wage rises in 1973, and how do the miners react to this?
government introduces 6 month Pay Freeze to combat inflation. Miners embark on 'work to rule' policy (ie refusing to do any overtime)
71
What happened in October 1973?
October 1973: Yom Kippur Arab-Israeli war-> limited coal + limited oil= dramatic inflation
- Other Arab countries supported Egypt
- Boycotted selling to the West
- Countries previously colonialised by Britain
- Pre WW2- America was one of biggest oil producers
- 40s-50s: Oil being discovered in Arab nations, West try to control through MNC oil companies
- 1973s: Arab nations form OPEC (Organisation of Petroleum Exporting Companies), collectively raise prices of barrel of oil, x3
72
What happens with the miners in December 1973 and how does Heath respond?
Miners start second miners' strike. Heath introduces '3 day week' policy, in attempt to outlast the striking miners. 3 day work week, 4 day weekend-> trying to conserve the coal stock by putting the factories and schools in the country
- People feel cold, demoralised, bored, depressed, reduced economic production + didn't stop the miners
73
What happens with the miners in January 1974?
miners went on another strike
74
What does Heath do in February 1974?
Heath calls a snap GE and asks 'Who Governs?'-> result is a Hung Parliament + Wilson is asked to form a government (Labour was largest party)
75
Why are the miners at an advantage?
Country becomes more reliant on coal
- Becomes more precious, bigger demand, gives them more power in strikes
76
What is Heath and Wilson's strike record?
Wilson worst working days lost: 7 million in a year
Heath worst working days lost: 23,909,000, in 1972
77
What type of identity became popularised in the 70s?
Domesticated individualism (interest in order, privacy etc)
78
How did property owning change in the 70s?
- Property owning accelerated-> more people taking out mortgages, more common (property= pillar of affluent society)
- Deregulation-> more building societies could be set up to provide the mortgages, high street banks could compete in the mortgage market in 1971, Bank of England relaxed lending rules
79
What towns were built in the 70s?
Milton Keynes, Peterborough,
80
How did the process of gentrification commonly occur in the 70s?
- Middle class couples buying houses, bohemian ideals, professionals, gentrifying the inner city ie Islington
- Building factories, schools etc near the area
- Working class residents moved out, landlords sold to middle class newcomers, working class people driven away from gentrified areas
81
How did house prices change in the 70s?
1972-73-> house prices went up 70%
1980- average house worth 10x value in 1970
82
What is Suburban society?
transition from class based collective culture to domesticated individualistic culture
83
How did travelling abroad change in Britain in the 70s?
Abroad travelling was becoming part of affluent society-> more holidays
Highly regulated taking money out for holidays-> 1969: take £50 out in a year
1970: take £300 pound out, exchange controls relaxed
- Led to foreign holidays 'package holidays'
- Holidays became nationalised industries, Companies like Thompson privatised
- Heath sold them to private buyers in 1972
84
How did numbers of people going abroad change from 1970-74?
1970- 6 million people going abroad
1974- almost doubled
85
Who was Marc Bolan/ his band 'T-Rex'?
- Gave people a new look to copy
- Beatles true successors
- Teenage girls were fans, appealing to boys
- Lorry driver son from Hackney
- Biggest change in masculine identity-> more makeup on men, feathers, flairs, fashion, skirts, colour
86
What was the influence of David Bowie in the 70s?
Bowie Album- Ziggy Stardust 1972
- Bringing peace and love to everyone
- Music + attitude-> gender bending, performance, impact on suburban teenagers
- Androgyny
- Came out as Bisexual (1972)
- Homosexuality was infringing from outlaw
87
Who were the main demographic of people involved in the Women's Liberation Movement?
White middle class women
88
When was the first Women's Liberation March?
March 6th 1971
- 3000 people
89
How many women were in Parliament until 1997?
Until 1997, the amount of women in parliament stay at 3% (lack of visibility)
90
What happens in Ireland in 1800 with the Act of Union?
Relations with Ireland formalised through the Act of Union. Dublin Irish Parliament absorbed into Westminster Parliament. Protestants, calling themselves Unionist or Loyalist, are pleased. Catholics, calling themselves Sinn Fein/Fenians or nationalists, are not. Became, in practice and legally, a colony at this point.
91
What is the Partition of Ireland in 1922?
The Partition of Ireland. Catholic nationalists fight the British and win independence for the South (becoming Republic of Ireland) but have to pay the price of leaving Protestant dominated North or ULSTER as part of UK.
Six counties in the north of the island opt to stay in the United Kingdom when the rest of Ireland becomes independent and later a republic. The majority of the inhabitants are Protestants although there is still a large Catholic minority.
92
What years are regarded as 'The Troubles'?
1968-98
93
Which 2 groups are 'The Troubles' between?
Unionists/Loyalists vs Catholic Sinn Fein/Nationalists
Sinn Fein- IRA (Irish Republican Army)
94
What is a Paramilitary group?
non government military group
95
What is a Sectarian group?
religious groups split
96
What impact does the Partition have in 1922?
There is a local gov't called the Stormont Parliament - Protestant dominated as constituencies are gerrymandered to minimise Catholic impact. The police force, the Royal Ulster Constabulary, is exclusively Protestant. Catholics are discriminated against in employment.
97
What is the significance of the 1922 Partition?
60% Protestant, 40% Catholic
1922 onwards- Catholics are like 2nd class citizens in NI, discriminated against in employment etc
Free movement between Republic of Ireland + NI, but RofI was poor through 20s-40s and not rich until 90s, so life may be easier in NI-> British government can give unemployment benefits etc
98
What happens in (Northern) Ireland in the 1960s?
Increasing numbers of Catholics in Northern Ireland go to university, because higher education is organised by the UK Westminster government, not Stormont. They are inspired by the fight of African Americans in the US civil rights movement.
99
What is the significance of increasing numbers of Catholics going to uni in NI?
NI Protestants didn't control, UK government did
Catholics begin to be assertive
100
What happened in Ireland in 1968?
The battle of the Bogside. A loyalist parade passing through the nationalist Bogside area of Derry/Londonderry in October sparks two days of rioting.
101
What happened in Ireland in 1969?
As sporadic violence spreads across the province, the British gov’t sends in troops. At first they are welcomed by the Catholic community, but sectarian violence continues. The IRA becomes more active, and the army increasingly concentrates on fighting it.
102
What is the significance of the British government sending troops to Ireland in 1969?
Needed unbiased police force- Royal Ulster Constabulary was too anti Catholic and are unhelpful to keeping the peace
- Catholics began to resent the British troops as they felt the British force was biased towards the Protestants
- Led to more Catholics joining the IRA
103
Who sent the British troops in 1969 into Ireland and why?
Wilson government sent some British troops to keep the peace
- PM when Troubles began
104
What happened in Ireland in 1971?
Internment. Nearly 2,000 people are arrested and held without trial on suspicion of involvement in terrorism.
105
What is the significance of Internment in 1971?
- Controversial for democratic country to do this
Shows Heath feels desperate to stop the violence
106
Why does Internment reflect badly on Heath?
impeachment of human rights, no right to fair trial
107
What happened in Ireland in 1972?
Bloody Sunday. A Catholic led protest against internment in Derry/Londonderry on 30 January is fired upon by British troops. Thirteen people are shot dead and another dies later. Troops say they were fired upon first by the Catholic protestors.
108
What is the significance of Bloody Sunday?
The Troubles became intense after this
109
What happened in Ireland in 1972?
Direct rule. Edward Heath suspends the Stormont parliament in Northern Ireland on 24 March and introduces direct rule from Westminster.
110
What was the significance of Direct Rule in 1972?
Heath became worried about the level of violence, took over control due to high dysfunction of the country
- Slight martial law imposed
NI Parliament + PM of NI suspended
- Country is run from Westminster
111
What was the Widgery Report 1972?
concluded British weren't to blame at all for the conflict
112
What was the impact of the Widgery Report 1972?
- Further convinced Catholic population that British govt was hostile
- Increased tensions between London and Dublin govt
- Gap between IRA and Non violent Social Democratic Labour Party (SDLP) widened
Gap between moderate Official Unionist Party + DUP led by Ian Paisley widened
113
Where did the Catholic civil right movement begin?
started in LondonDerry not Belfast as LD had more Catholics, as it was further West
114
What areas of NI were largely Catholic?
- Bogside (large Catholic Area)
Free Derry- free from IRA + British
115
Who backed the Sunningdale Agreement 1973?
Heath organised the Sunningdale Agreement (Dec 1973)
Backed by London + Dublin governments, SDLP, Official Unionist
116
What was the Sunningdale Agreement 1973?
- Agreed to form an executive which governs NI on behalf of both Protestant and Catholic communities
117
Why were people concerned about the Sunningdale Agreement 1973?
- People scared that Catholics had their first sense of power since 1921-> continued IRA attacks and violence between IRA and Loyalist (pro union) groups
118
Why were Catholics not confident in the support of the state?
Catholics scared of unemployment, presence of British army, slow process of them gaining Civil Rights, law biased against them ie Diplock Courts
119
What are Diplock courts?
hear cases without a jury
120
How did Protestants feel about the Sunningdale agreement 1973?
The agreement was a sell out of Unionist Ireland-> led to creation of Ulster Defence Force, mirroring IRA for loyalist extremists (another Paramilitary force)
121
Was the Sunningdale Agreement a success or failure?
Sunningdale Agreement eventually collapsed
May have made things worse due to Ulster Defence Association
122
What Unionist movement happened in May 1974?
Province was paralysed by massive 15 day strike organised by pro-Paisley Ulster Worker's Council (UWC, unionists) in protest against the Sunningdale Agreement
123
How did unionists react to negotiations with PM Wilson in May 1974 after strike against Sunningdale Agreement?
- Merlyn Rees tried to refuse negotiations backed by Wilson
- Unionists who signed the Sunningdale agreement declared it was no longer workable-> power sharing didn't seem viable
124
What was the 1974 Northern Ireland Act?
created a Constitutional Convention, way of reintroducing a power sharing principle
125
How successful were the first elections to the Ireland Constitutional Convention?
- First elections to Convention in 1975- 66% turnout
126
Was the Convention successful?
- 83 Convention members met- Ulster Unionists presented resolution by Ian Paisley declaring they didn't accept the right of republicans to take part in any future cabinet with NI, Little the SDLP could do due to inflexibility + partisan positions
- Convention passed with a majority of 30> but lost real meaning and British govt formally dissolved it in 1976
127
What did the British Government do in 1976 that impacted Irish prisoners?
Government withdrew 'Special Status Category' for prisoners serving sentences in NI for terrorist acts in 1976 . Future, would be treated not as political prisoners but as common criminals
128
How did Wilson and Callaghan find settlement talks with Ireland unrealistic?
- IRA was main culprit in outrages + assassination (including murders on mainland Britain) difficult to make political concessions/ a deal to legitimate nationalists without appearing to give into terrorism
- Series of lethal IRA attacks in Britain 1974, including Birmingham pub bombing-> government introduced a Prevention of Terrorism Act 1974
- Suggestions that the government could not afford to antagonise the Ulster Unionists, whose support might be needed in critical Westminster votes, as the Labour Commons majority was so small in 1974-79
- Presence of Labour backbenchers of MPs who openly supported the Republican cause in NI + 'troops out' campaign compromised + inhibited the government
129
How did the IRA become an authoritative force?
IRA stopped cars- isolation, couldn't rely on the police- IRA became the police
130
What did the IRA do in 1974?
- Anger at the British public and government for standing aside and letting violence occur in Ireland + against the Catholics
- Birmingham Pub Bombing (IRA) - 21 people killed, around 200 injured, first time IRA attacks reached England
131
What was Heath's Local government reform?
Local Government Act 1973, prepared and introduced by Peter Walker, Environment Minister
- Whole areas were subsumed into newly created regions + many familiar place names disappeared
132
What was the reaction to Heath's 1973 local government Act?
- There were protests, especially from Conservatives on the right, that changes amounted to attacks on local identity
133
How did Britain enter the EEC (1969-73) under Heath?
EEC invited Britain to reapply after De Gaulle's retirement (French President) in 1969
- Gave Heath opportunity to fulfil leading Britain into Europe, telling his party the economic situation made it essential that Britain becomes an EEC member
- Heath accepted the EEC offer and signed the Treaty of Accession in 1972-> Britain became member of 1st January 1973
- Regarded it as his greatest personal achievement, staking his reputation on it
134
What were advantages of Britain joining the EEC in 1973?
- Gained access to European markets
- Benefitted from final end of wartime antagonisms
- Part of European block, stood a better chance of attracting global business
- British regions were entitled to European development grants
- British workers had the right to work in other EEC countries
- Greater opportunity of movement for British people within Europe
135
What were disadvantages of Britain joining the EEC in 1973?
- Britain was no longer able to buy cheap food from the Commonwealth
- Britain was classified as an advanced industrial economy at the time of entry- meaning it had to make higher contributions to the EEC budget than it received in grants from Europe. By early 1980s, Britain was paying 20% of the revenue raised by the EEC, but was receiving only 8% of expenditure
- European policy of supporting farmers meant British consumers had to pay inflated prices
- Common Fisheries Policy severely restricted Britain's right to fish in its customary grounds, leading to significant reduction in the fishing industry
- Condition of entry, Britain had to impose value added tax (VAT) on most commodities which British consumers bought: VAT began at 8%, 1973, increases to 17.5% in the future
- In entering EEC, Britain joined a protectionist organisation that was already beginning to look dated now the world was entering era of global markets
136
What was a risk of joining the EEC in 1973?
Possible loss of British Sovereignty has been very much present in the mind of the negotiators (slight risk)
137
What were weaknesses of Britain's bargaining position in 1973?
- The 6 knew Britain sought membership as it couldn't survive economically on its own
- Some argue EEC membership was a brake on progress
- But majority view outside main government circles of Conservative and Labour was Britain couldn't afford to remain outside
- Britain couldn't negotiate from strong position, no say in EEC set up and existing members wouldn't allow it to change the system
Meant extra European tariffs had to be placed on Commonwealth goods ie from Australia and New Zealand, less profit for trade to and from Britain-> did give these countries and Britain a transition period but economic ties with the Commonwealth had been sacrificed for the EEC
138
What international crisis coincided with Britain joining the EEC?
International oil price rise 1973
139
What was oil trade like up until the early 1970s?
Large Multinational companies had controlled production and distribution of oil + provided Western world with steady supply of relatively cheap fuel
140
Who did the rise in oil prices affect?
- Main target was USA, but impacted all Western countries whose economies were heavily oil dependant-> caused mass inflation through the industrial world
- Decade after 1973, Britain suffered in severe recession
141
Which government felt the full impact of the oil crisis?
Unemployment was affected only after the oil crisis (1973= 785,000, 1974-628,000, 1975=1,152,000, 1978 (peak)=1,608,000)-> Oil crises happened under Heath, but Labour govt of 1974-9 was the one to suffer full force
142
Why did a large number of voters in the Feb 1974 election perceive Heath as having failed as PM?
Critical number of voters judged Heath to have been a failure-> government achieved none of their economic goals they set 4 years prior
- Rapid inflation made the holding down of prices impossible
- Wage demands of unions (majority of cases accepted by employers) large number off days lost through strikes resulted in decline rather than growth in productivity
- Unemployment had not been reduced-> 1972 marked highest joblessness since the depression in 1930s
- Resort to 3 day week 1973 showed how far the government had fallen short of its aims
143
What was the results of the Feb 1974 election?
narrow victory to Labour
- Conservative support dropped 7 points, but won higher vote share (37.9%)
- Labour won 4 more seats than Conservatives, but vote share dropped by 6% ( to 37.1%)
- Liberals increased vote by over 4 million (over half of the votes for Conservatives or Labour)
Conservative seats= 297
Labour seats= 301
Liberal seats= 14
- Majority of 4
- Wilson used support of 14 Liberal MPs
144
Which factors led to Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
- Miners
- Broader Economic policy
- Northern Ireland
- Women and Identity
- Liberal Surge
- Heath and poor leadership
145
Why were the miners a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
- Heath is not in control
- 3 day week-> takes out his previous failings on the people, doesn't present them with a good image that Heath is an effective + prosperous leader, unpopular with voters
- Large strikes
- 1971 Industrial Relations Act-> harsh, TUC agrees to collectively not trust him, poor management from Heath
- Heath 'Who Governs?'- Heath vs Miners, blames miners as main problem
146
Why were the miners not a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
Largely capitalising on other factors ie Broader Economic Policy
147
Why was broader economic policy a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
Oil- furthered inflation, tripled in price, Yom Kippur War
- Affected everyone in society compared to Miners or NI
- People felt worse off during the end of Heath's tenure compared to before he was elected
- Backwards and forwards on the PAIB
- Increasing inflation
- EEC: loss of commonwealth, food prices go up, do not care as much about the political links of the EEC
- Election 1974- Labour Win minority government due to people reacting against poor economic climate in marginal seats
148
Why was broader economic policy not a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
EEC: not very big in voters minds, cons really only hit once Wilson came into power, people didn't vote off of backlash + people eventually voted to stay in the EEC
149
How were marginal seats swayed in the 1974 election?
people were worried about run away prices, rising prices + inflation as they are used to prosperity
150
Why was Northern Ireland a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
Didn't help Troubles, may have aggravated further
- Unsettling for some voters that the violence isn't ending
- NI voted for Westminster Parliament
- Shows Heath is not in control
151
Why was Northern Ireland not a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
Not an important factor in terms of voter priority-
152
Why was Women and Identity a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
Lack of change under Heath- has been previous change under Wilson, prospective change under him if he is re elected
153
Why was Women and Identity not a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
Not a major factor in terms of political unrest, especially compared to NI or Miners
154
Why was the Liberal Surge a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
Liberal Surge of 1974
1970 (6 seats), 7.5% of national vote
1974 (14 seats), 19.3% of national vote
- Young, dynamic
- Take more votes from Conservatives than Labour
- Challenge to Tories
- May have been tactical voting against Heath, first time swaying from the 2 party dominance
1974 ELECTION:
23 'Other' Seats- beginning of SNP (was militaristic + low taxation, small state tory, only looking for an independent Scotland)
297 Conservative seats
301 Labour seats
- Hung Parliament- no party gets the most votes than all the other parties combined
- Wilson becomes PM with minority government
155
Why was the Liberal Surge not a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
Not too much power- Meant people voted elsewhere instead of Conservatives, but that was as a result of the poor economic and social Conservative actions in terms of the miners and policy
Conservatives won 37.8% of vote, Labour won only 37.2% vote-> Conservatives technically won. FPTP to blame.
People sick of the 2 main parties, no change- want someone new
British people becoming more pluralist, no longer such a 2 party system
156
Why was Heath and poor leadership a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
Lots of U Turns
Didn't have to call the election - by his choice
Heath's poor leadership was the reason for his loss
Local Government Act
157
Why was Heath and poor leadership not a significant factor in Heath's defeat in the 1974 election?
May not have had a choice in calling the election- as he couldn't give into the miners
The longer the 3 day week went on, the worse the economy Got-> protected the coal as they were running out
158
When was the Referendum on Europe promised?
1974
Wilson conscious that left wing of Labour + trade unions remained suspicious of the EEC (regarded as a capitalist club, hostile to socialism)
- To improve relations with unions, Wilson pledged as opposition that Labour would renegotiate terms of British EEC membership
159
When did negotiations with the EEC begin?
- 1974 return to office, government began renegotiations in agriculture, budget payments and Commonwealth imports. James Callaghan= government Chief representative
- Mainly a gesture as talks produced no major changed BUT Wilson was able to claim renegotiations opened a way for British people to have a choice on Europe, called National referendum in 1975 (first ever), prepared for in Labour election manifesto
160
When was the referendum on the EEC?
1975
161
What were strengths of the 1975 EEC referendum?
- Asked the British public for their opinion (democratic)
- Strengthened relations with unions
- Got the public to vote on the governments side
162
What were weaknesses of the 1975 EEC referendum?
- Referendum after joining (useless?)
- Cross party divide on opinions of leaving/staying (unstable government)
- People voted to stay out of fears of leaving rather than enthusiasm for remaining
- Economic advantages were unseen
- Afterthought of impact on British Sovereignty
163
What happened post referendum with views on EEC?
no instruction for MPs from parties for which side to take-> producing cross party divide. Labour government backed voting to stay in, but majority of Labour members wanted to leave and majority of Conservatives and Liberals wanted to stay in.
164
What was the split in Parliament on the EEC?
- Prominent Labour pro Europeans= Roy Jenkins + Shirley Williams
Shared platform with Heath and other leading Conservatives
- Labour opponents= Tony Benn, Michael Foot, Barbara Castle, Peter Shore
164
What did the government do to encourage people to vote to stay in the EEC in the referendum?
Week before the referendum, government sent a leaflet to all households via post- 'Britain's new deal in Europe' recommending electors vote to stay in the EEC
165
What was the result of the EEC referendum 1975?
Electorate voted more out of fear of the consequences of leaving than out of enthusiasm for remaining
- Results showed large majority for staying in the EEC
- 64.5% UK turnout
- Yes= 64.5%
- No=35.5%
166
What did critics of the 1975 EEC referendum say?
Opponents (no vote) argued referendum should've been before Britain's entry not after it, leading them to vote on a Fait Accompli (irreversible position already established), not leaving them to make a free choice
167
How much did the 'yes' campaign in the EEC referendum spend?
yes campaign, funded by EEC, was able to spend 2x as much on campaigning than the opposition, matching the vote distribution
168
Why were the economic advantages of Britain joining the EEC unseen?
- International oil price rise 1973 onwards, restricted Britain's economy
- Inflation and economic downturn outweighed any gains from being a member of the EEC
- 1958-73, Britain's exports to EEC countries had more than doubled as a share of national income + Britain's exports to Europe declined after 1973
- Overall, net effect of membership was greatly increased financial costs with no real trade benefits
169
How was Wilson successful in his EEC policy?
success in the way he handled the EEC and minimised splits in the Labour Party
170
What happened to the Conservative party in 1975?
Heath tried to stay leader
- Margret Thatcher becomes leader in 1975
171
What happened in the Oct 1974 election?
- Wilson asks voters for increased majority from Feb hung parliament-> majority over Conservatives of 42 (but turnout went down, but overall was only a small majority)
172
Why did Wilson resign in 1976?
○ Thought he had early signs of Alzheimer's
○ MI5 'coups' (plans to force him out)- Wilson became paranoid
○ Kitchen Cabinet of close advisors, Affair with close advisor Marcia Falkender/Williams
○ Exhaustion, felt he couldn't solve the issues anymore
173
Who takes over from Wilson as PM in 1976?
James Callaghan
174
What is Labour forced to do in 1977 to ensure power in parliament as a government?
Labour lost by elections over time, by 1977- forced to sign Lib-Lab pact (not a formal coalition)
- Liberals aren't going to make part of the government, but will support Labour
- Can influence policy making a lot more, more power than since the last Liberal government (hasn't been since 1920s an influence on government)
175
What happens to the Lib Lab pact?
relations between Labour and Liberals sours
176
Who does Labour rely on after the Liberals?
became dependent on Ulster Unionists and SNP (new party for Scottish independence)
SNP insisted Callaghan organise a devolution referendum for Scotland in early 1979
- 'YES' vote in the referendum didn't reach 50% of the threshold, Labour shelved it and SNP withdrew support.
177
What happens to Callaghan in 1979?
Opposition MPs organised a vote of confidence. Callaghan has to call an election, which Thatcher's Conservatives won
- He lost the vote of confidence by 1 vote
178
What is the IMF?
International Monetary Fund set up by UN post WW2
- Provide help to countries going bankrupt
- Make countries feel more stable and encourage trade (business people only tend to invest to export if they feel the global economy is predictable)
179
Why did countries need to rely on help like the IMF post Oil crisis 1973?
- Western countries inflation due to 1973 oil prices (x3) not just UK
- GB was spending so much on imports (including oil), impacting UK more than other countries-> balance of payments deficit worsened, led to fears of bankruptcy
- March 1976: the pound dropped below $2 in exchange value for the first time
180
What was the IMF crisis 1976?
- Dennis Healey (chancellor of the exchequer) had to begin negotiating loan of £3 billion from IMF
- Terms of the loan required Britain to make major public expenditure cuts, outraging the left + trade unions (threats of strike etc)
Healey delayed flight to Manila for IMF negotiations for the Labour Party conference to try and preserve party unity-> partially successful, began to accept cuts were in the public interest
181
What long term split did the IMF crisis 1976 highlight within the Labour party?
- Highlighted long running feud between left and centre-right of Labour party-> Left felt government were following Conservative party like policy, Centre right argued that appealing to the left due to trade union extremist threats, government loses its power to govern independently + alienated itself from ordinary British voters
182
What was the result of the cuts due to the IMF crisis of 1976?
- 1979: government reduced its spending programme by £3 billion, in line with IMF demand-> stabilised financial situation but increased unemployment to 1.6 million in 1978
- Some saw it as leeway for Thatcher's revolution in 1980s as a result of appealing to international bankers
- Others saw IMF loan as further evidence of Britain's decline
183
Why did Labour have to borrow from the IMF in 1976?
Labour had to borrow due to government deficit (due to balance of payments/trade deficit), led to pressure on the pound-> needed to stabilise the economy
May have gone bankrupt/devalue-> worse Labour's reputation (devalued in 67)
184
Why did Labour have to cut government spending in 1976?
Had to cut government spending so the government is more likely to pay back the loan as debt is reduced + gains reputation so if another loan is needed they will be able to get the money back (sustainable)
185
Why was the IMF crisis 1976 humiliating for Britain>
- First developed country to get an IMF loan
- Bad rep for poor pound under Labour
186
How did Wilson deal with the unions in 1974?
Wilson 74- payed the unions off, ending the strike, 21% pay increase
187
Why did Wilson have weak relations with the TUC?
Cuts in public spending + resulting rise in unemployment worsened relations with trade union + weakened their traditional loyalty to the Labour Party
- Credit govt gained from repealing the Industrial Relations Act 1974 was lost by inability to persuade workers to co operate consistently with it
- Wilson seemed to be on cooperative terms with the unions, frequently referencing the social contract between the government and unions but produced little direct results
- Chance of success but TUC may not work with the government due to loss of loyalty
188
What was the Social Contract 1972?
informal 1972 agreement between Wilson and Vic Feather (TUC general secretary) to effect that when Labour returned to power, unions would follow wage restraint policy in return for adoption of pro worker industrial policies by the government)
189
What were economic failures between 1974-79?
Social contract- cannot be held to account, not binding in any way
Dislike of the unnecessary IMF loan
Gave into the trade unions- need to leave it, unnecessary strain on the
Winter of discontent
Keynesianism should've been disregarded completely
190
What were 3 political restrictions on the Labour governments between 1974-79?
The narrowness of Labour’s overall majority in the Commons
The grim effects of the rapid inflation following the oil price of 1973
The struggle with the trade unions
191
Why was the narrowness of Labour’s overall majority in the Commons politically restricting for Labour governments between 1974-79?
October 1974 gave Labour a majority of 42 over the Conservatives but only an overall majority of 3 (max.). This tight margin made the government heavily dependent on the Liberal MPS, leading to the Lib-Lab pact.
192
Why were the grim effects of the rapid inflation following the oil price rise of 1973 politically restricting for Labour governments between 1974-79?
The decline in the value of money and the growing debit in its trade threatened to make Britain bankrupt. March 1976, the pounds value dropped below $2. Dennis Healey had to negotiate a £3 billion loan from the IMF which threatened to split the Labour party over spending cuts required by the loan
193
Why was the struggle with trade unions politically restricting for Labour governments between 1974-79?
Government spending cuts and high unemployment due to the IMF loan embittered the unions and weakened their loyalty to the Labour Party. The credit the government had gained from repealing the Industrial Relations Act in 1974 was lost by its inability to persuade works to cooperate with it despite the social contract supposed to exist between the government and unions.
194
What was the issue in Ireland?
The 1921 Treaty had left the six counties of Northern Ireland with a predominately Protestant population.
-There were one million Protestants to half a million Catholics.
-Protestants had used their majority to dominate the sperate Parliament set up in 1921.
-Protestants had consolidated their political control by securing rights denied to the Catholic minority.
-Catholic Irish nationalists resolved to gain equal rights.
-Role of the London and Dublin governments.
195
Who were the Nationalists/Republican groups in Ireland?
SDLP – Social Democratic and Labour Party
IRA – Irish Republic Army
INLA – Irish National Liberation Army
Sinn Féin
196
Who were the Unionists/Loyalist groups in Ireland?
Official Unionists
DUP – Democratic Unionist Party
UVF – Ulster Volunteer Force
197
What were the key stages in the struggle for settlement in Northern Ireland?
British troops sent to Northern Ireland, August 1969
Internment introduced, August 1971
Bloody Sunday, January 1972
Birmingham pub bombings, 21 November 1974
Prevention of Terrorism Act, November 1974
