Building Brains 1 Flashcards
(161 cards)
1
Q
Which direction would be described as ‘rostral’ in the brain and spinal cord? (2)
A
SPINAL CORD:
Upwards - towards the beak
BRAIN:
Forwards - towards the nose
2
Q
Which direction would be described as ‘caudal’ in the brain and spinal cord? (2)
A
SPINAL CORD:
Downwards - towards the tail
BRAIN:
Backwards - towards occipital lobe
3
Q
What direction would be described as ‘dorsal’ in the brain and spinal cord? (2)
A
SPINAL CORD:
Towards back
BRAIN:
Towards top
4
Q
What direction would be described as ‘ventral’ in the brain and spinal cord? (2)
A
SPINAL CORD:
Towards the front
BRAIN:
Towards the bottom
5
Q
Name the three meninges surrounding the brain. (3)
A
- Dura mater
- Arachnoid mater
- Pia mater
6
Q
Name the three dural folds/reflections. (3)
A
- Falx cerebri
- Tentorium cerebelli
- Falx cerebelli
7
Q
Name the two layers of the dura mater. (2)
A
- Endosteal layer
- Meningeal layer
8
Q
Underneath which layers of the meninges are CSF and blood vessels contained? (1)
A
Arachnoid
9
Q
What is the purpose of arachnoid granulations? (1)
A
Allow reabsorption of CSF from subarachnoid space to dural venous sinuses.
10
Q
Name two fluids contained in dural venous sinuses. (2)
A
- Blood
- CSF
11
Q
Which meningeal layer acts to protect the brain? (1)
A
Dura mater
12
Q
Which meningeal layer follows the contours of the brain the closest? (1)
A
Pia mater
13
Q
Which sulcus of the brain is the deepest? (1)
A
Precentral
14
Q
Which sulcus runs on both the outside and the inside of the brain? (1)
A
Parieto-occipital sulcus
15
Q
Name three brain sulci that only run on the inner surface of the brain. (3)
A
- Calcarine sulcus
- Cingulate sulcus
- Marginal sulcus
16
Q
Give another name for the hindbrain. (1)
A
Rhombencephalon
17
Q
Give the two divisions of the hindbrain, and the structures that they contain. (5)
A
Metencephalon:
- Pons
- Cerebellum
Myelencephalon:
- Medulla oblongata
18
Q
Give another name for the midbrain. (1)
A
Mesencephalon
19
Q
Give three structures that make up the midbrain. (3)
A
- Tectum (colliculi)
- Tegmentum
- Cerebral peduncles
20
Q
Give another name for the forebrain. (1)
A
Prosencephalon
21
Q
Give two divisions of the forebrain and the structures that they contain. (6)
A
Diencephalon:
- Thalamus
- Hypothalamus
Telencephalon:
- Basal ganglia
- Cortex
22
Q
Where is the thalamus located in relation to the putamen and caudate nucleus? (1)
A
The thalamus is deeper
23
Q
Which system are the superior colliculi involved in? (1)
A
Visual
24
Q
Which system are the inferior colliculi involved in? (1)
A
Auditory
25
Which colliculi are involved in the unconscious turning of the head in response to a visual stimulus? (1)
Superior
26
Which colliculi are involved in the localisation of sound? (1)
Inferior
27
Which part of the midbrain is involved in the main descending movement pathway? (1)
Cerebral peduncles
28
Name the area of the midbrain which surrounds the cerebral aqueduct.
What brain function is this area involved in? (2)
Periaqueductal grey
Pain
29
Which neurotransmitter is released by the substantia nigra? (1)
Dopamine
30
Why does the substantia nigra appear dark? (1)
Melanin is a by product of dopamine
31
Complete the sentence:
The ________________________ is a structure in the midbrain which appears a certain colour, and is involved in the extrapyramidal motor system. (1)
Red nucleus
32
Moving through the ventricular system, why does each ventricle get smaller than the last? (1)
To maintain pressure and flow of CSF.
33
Name (in order) the structures that CSF flows through in the brain (the ventricular system). (5)
1. Lateral ventricles
2. Interventricular foramen
3. Third ventricle
4. Cerebral aqueduct
5. Fourth ventricle
34
Name the cistern which lies in close proximity to the cerebellum, where CSF is held after it has left the ventricles. (1)
Cisterna magna
35
Give three roles of the CSF. (3)
- Assists in circulating substances
- Provides cushioning
- Absorbs shock
36
In relation to the meninges, where is the cisterna magna located? (1)
Subarachnoid space
37
Name the two arteries that feed into the circle of Willis. (2)
Internal carotid arteries
Vertebral arteries
38
Describe the territory of the anterior cerebral artery. (1)
Medial frontal lobes (and corpus callosum)
39
Which artery of the circle of Willis supplies the diencephalon? (1)
Posterior cerebral artery
40
Which part of the brain does the posterior inferior cerebellar artery supply? (1)
Posterior cerebellum
41
Which part of the brain does the anterior inferior cerebellar artery supply? (1)
Anterior cerebellum
42
Which part of the brain does the superior cerebellar artery supply? (1)
Bulk of the cerebellum
43
Describe the territory of the posterior cerebral artery. (1)
Medial occipital and inferior temporal lobes (and hippocampus)
44
Which branches of the circle of Willis make up the posterior circulation? (5)
- Inferior posterior cerebellar artery
- Basilar artery
- Inferior anterior cerebellar artery
- Superior cerebellar artery
- Posterior cerebral artery
45
Which branches of the circle of Willis make up the anterior circulation? (2)
- Anterior cerebral artery
- Middle cerebral artery
46
Describe the territory supplied by the middle cerebral arteries. (3)
Lateral temporal and parietal lobes, and posterior frontal lobe
47
Name the connection between endothelial cells in the blood vessels which stop unwanted molecules getting into the brain. (1)
Tight junctions
48
Name four things that make up the blood-brain barrier. (4)
1. Endothelial cells
2. Basement membrane
3. Pericytes
4. Astrocytic end feet
49
What are the roles of pericytes in the blood brain barrier? (3)
- Communicate with endothelial cells
- Contribute to debris removal
- Control blood flow in capillaries
50
What are the roles of astrocytes in the blood brain barrier? (2)
- Stabilization
- Contain aquaporins to allow water to enter the brain
51
Why is the cortex of the brain folded? (1)
To increase surface area
52
Is the cortex composed of white matter or grey matter? (1)
Grey matter
53
Name the two main neurones found in the cerebral cortex. (2)
- Pyramidal cells
- Granule cells
54
Are pyramidal cells or granule cells more abundant in the cortex? (1)
Pyramidal cells
55
Describe the relative sizes of pyramidal cells and granule cells in the cortex. (1)
Pyramidal cells are larger than granule cells.
56
Do pyramidal cells contain dendritic spines? (1)
Yes
57
Describe the granule cells found in the cerebellum (spines, neurotransmitter, excitatory or inhibitory). (3)
- Smooth (no spines)
- GABA
- Inhibitory
58
Describe the granule cells found in the cerebral cortex (spines, neurotransmitter, excitatory or inhibitory). (3)
- Spiny
- Glutamate
- Excitatory
59
Name three roles of astrocytes. (3)
- Maintain homeostasis (sequestering K and glutamate)
- End feet maintain BBB
- Repair and scarring
60
What is the role of microglia? (1)
Resident immune cells
61
Describe the shape/function of a microglial cell during rest vs when activated. (4)
REST:
- Fine processes
ACTIVATED:
- Ramified
- Amoeboid
- Mobile
62
Are microglia capable of phagocytosis? (1)
Yes
63
What is the role of oligodendrocytes? (1)
Myelin
64
The cerebral cortex is made up of how many layers? (1)
6
65
Name the six cortical layers, from superficial to deep. (6)
1. Molecular
2. External granular
3. External pyramidal
4. Internal granular
5. Internal pyramidal
6. Multiform
66
Which cortical layer contains very few cells? (1)
Molecular (I)
67
Describe the cells making up the external granular (II) layer of the cortex. (2)
- Small pyramidal cells
- Granular cells
68
Describe the cells that make up the external pyramidal (III) layer of the cortex. (2)
- Small and medium pyramidal cells
- Granular cells
69
Describe the cells contained in the internal granular (IV) layer of the cortex. (2)
- Mostly stellate neurones
- Some pyramidal cells
70
Describe the cells in the internal pyramidal (V) layer of the cortex. (2)
- Large pyramidal cells
- Projection neurones
71
Describe the cells making up the multiform (VI) layer of cortex. (1)
Small, spindle-like pyramidal neurones.
72
Which two layers of the cerebral cortex are most densely packed with cells? (2)
IV and V
73
Which area is contained in the postcentral gyrus? (1)
Primary somatosensory area
74
Which area is contained in the precentral gyrus? (1)
Primary motor area
75
Which area is contained in the superior parietal lobe and supramarginal gyrus? (1)
Somatosensory association areas
76
Which area is contained in the middle frontal gyrus? (1)
Premotor area
77
Which areas are contained in the superior temporal gyrus? (2)
Wernicke's area and primary auditory area
78
Which area is contained in the inferior frontal gyrus? (1)
Broca's area
79
What is the function of cortical layer IV? (1)
Receives sensory information
80
What is the function of cortical layers V and VI? (1)
Output to other parts of the brain
81
Compare cortical layer IV in the motor and sensory cortices. (1)
Much larger in sensory cortex
82
Compare cortical layers V and VI in the motor and sensory cortices. (1)
Much larger in motor cortex.
83
What is the function of cortical layers I, II, and III? (1)
Integrative functions
84
What is the role of the premotor area in movement? (1)
Organising movement
85
What is the role of the prefrontal area in movement? (1)
Planning movement
86
Describe Broca's aphasia. (1)
Failure to formulate speech
87
Describe Wernicke's aphasia. (1)
Failure to comprehend speech
88
If a patient has an aphasia but is unaware that there is a problem, which aphasia are they most likely to have? (1)
Wernicke's
89
If a patient has an aphasia and is aware that there is a problem, which aphasia are they most likely to have? (1)
Broca's
90
State the starting and ending points for the corticospinal tract. (2)
START - Primary motor cortex
END - Spinal cord
91
Describe the extent of the exchange of information which is carried out by white matter association fibres. (1)
Information exchange within one hemisphere
92
Describe the extent of the exchange of information which is carried out by white matter commissural fibres. (1)
Information exchange between hemispheres
93
Describe the extent of the exchange of information which is carried out by white matter projection fibres. (1)
Information exchange between cortex and other regions of the brain and spinal cord
94
Name four commissural fibres found within the brain. (4)
- Corpus callosum
- Fornix
- Anterior commissure
- Posterior commissure
95
In which part of the brain is the posterior commissure located? (1)
a) thalamus
b) midbrain
c) pons
Midbrain
96
What two structures are connected by the anterior commissure? (1)
Amygdalas
97
What does the posterior commissure connect? (1)
Bilateral midbrain nuclei
98
Describe the route that upper motor neurones take from the primary motor cortex to the spinal cord. (6)
- Primary motor cortex (layer V)
- Internal capsule (via corona radiata)
- Cerebral peduncles
- Pons
- Medullary pyramids
- Spinal cord
99
The internal capsule runs in between which two structures of the basal ganglia? (2)
- Caudate nucleus
- Putamen
100
True or false:
The corticospinal tract, which is a projection fibre, is formed of upper and lower motor neurones.
(1)
False - only upper motor neurones
101
In which layer of the primary motor cortex do the pyramidal tracts originate? (1)
Layer V
102
Name the two individual tracts which together make up the corticospinal tract. (2)
Hint:
Cortico........... tract and cortico............... tract
- Corticospinal tract
- Corticobulbar tract
103
Where does the corticobulbar tract terminate and what does it innervate? (2)
- Terminates in brain stem
- Innervates head, neck, and face
104
Does the corticobulbar tract innervate structures:
a) ipsilateral
b) contralateral
c) bilateral
Are there any exceptions?
(2)
Mostly bilateral, except CNVII and CNXII which are contralateral
105
Where does the corticospinal tract terminate? (1)
Spinal cord
106
Give the names and percentage contributions to the two divisions of the corticospinal tract. (2)
- Lateral (80%)
- Ventral (20%)
107
Where does the lateral corticospinal tract decussate? (1)
Medulla
108
Where does the ventral spinal tract decussate? (1)
It doesn't cross over (according to the lectures) however it crosses just before it synapses in the spinal cord.
109
Which muscles does the lateral corticospinal tract innervate? (1)
Limb and digit muscles
110
Which muscles does the ventral corticospinal tract innervate? (1)
Trunk muscles
111
Where in the grey matter are neurones which innervate distal muscles located? (1)
Laterally
112
Where in the grey matter are neurones which innervate proximal muscles located? (1)
Medially
113
Where in the grey matter are neurones which innervate flexor muscles located? (1)
Dorsally
114
Where in the grey matter are neurones which innervate extensor muscles located? (1)
Ventrally
115
Give six symptoms of upper motor neurone lesions. (6)
- Muscle weakness
- Stiffness
- Hypertonia
- Exaggerated reflexes
- Spasticity
- Upgoing babinski
116
Give four symptoms of a lower motor neurone lesion. (4)
- Muscle weakness
- Hypotonia
- Inhibited reflexes
- Fasciculations
117
Give four types of motor neurone disease. (4)
- Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
- Primary lateral sclerosis
- Pseudobulbar palsy
- Progressive muscular atrophy
118
Which motor neurones (upper/lower) are affected in ALS? (1)
Upper and lower
119
Which motor neurones (upper/lower) are affected in primary lateral sclerosis? (1)
upper (corticospinal tract)
120
Which motor neurones (upper/lower) are affected in pseudobulbar palsy? (1)
Upper (corticobulbar tract)
121
Which motor neurones (upper/lower) are affected in progressive muscular atrophy? (1)
Lower
122
Do the pyramidal tracts produce voluntary, involuntary movements, or both? (1)
Voluntary
123
Which motor neurones (upper/lower) are affected in multiple sclerosis? (1)
Can affect either
124
Give three inputs to the basal ganglia (and name their pathways). (6)
- Cerebral cortex (corticostriate)
- Thalamus (thalamostriate)
- Brainstem (nigrostriate)
125
Give three outputs of the basal ganglia. (3)
- Thalamus
- Cortex (via thalamus)
- Brainstem
126
Give two functions of the basal ganglia. (2)
- Facilitate context appropriate voluntary behaviour and movement
- Inhibit inappropriate involuntary movement
127
Which nucleus of the thalamus is involved in basal ganglia circuits? (1)
Ventral lateral nucleus
128
Which structures make up the lentiform nucleus of the basal ganglia? (2)
- Putamen
- Globus pallidus
129
Which structures make up the corpus striatum of the basal ganglia? (3)
- Caudate nucleus
- Putamen
- globus pallidus
130
Which structures make up the neostriatum of the basal ganglia? (2)
- Caudate nucleus
- Putamen
131
Which structures make up the paleostriatum of the basal ganglia? (2)
Both parts of the globus pallidus
132
Which structures make up the basal ganglia? (6)
- Caudate nucleus
- Putamen
- Globus pallidus
- Thalamus
- Subthalamic nucleus
- Substantia nigra
133
Name the two parts of the substantia nigra.
Which part sends out signals and which part receives signals? (4)
Pars compacta - sends signals
Pars reticulata - receives signals
134
Describe the morphology of the neurones found in the striatum of the basal ganglia. (2)
Medium
Spiny
Neurones
135
Describe the output and neurotransmitter of the striatum. (4)
Inhibitory (GABA) to globus pallidus and substantia nigra pars reticulata
136
Describe the inputs to the striatum (including inhibitory/excitatory, neurotransmitter, and location). (9)
Substantia nigra pars compacta
Dopamine
Can be excitatory or inhibitory
Thalamus
Glutamate
Excitatory
Cerebral cortex
Glutamate
Excitatory
137
Which structure is the major input to the basal ganglia? (1)
Striatum
138
Which structure is the major output of the basal ganglia? (1)
Globus pallidus internal
139
Describe the main neurotransmitter input and output to the globus pallidus internal. (2)
INPUT - GABA
OUTPUT - GABA
140
Describe the main neurotransmitter input and output to the globus pallidus external. (2)
INPUT - GABA
OUTPUT - GABA
141
Which pathway of the basal ganglia is the GPi mainly involved in? (1)
Direct
142
Which pathway of the basal ganglia is the GPe mainly involved in? (1)
Indirect
143
Give two neurotransmitters which form part of the communication between the striatum and the GPi. (2)
Substance P
Dynorphin
144
Give a neurotransmitter which forms part of the communication between the striatum and the GPe. (1)
Enkephalin
145
Describe the role and neurotransmitter associated with the substantia nigra pars compacta. (2)
Dopaminergic output
to striatum
146
Describe three inputs into the substantia nigra pars reticulata (location and NT). (6)
- Substantia nigra pars compacta (dopamine)
- Subthalamic nucleus (glutamate)
- Striatum (GABA)
147
Describe the output of the substantia nigra pars reticulata. (2)
GABAergic to thalamus
148
What is the role of the direct pathway of the basal ganglia? (1)
Initiate movement
149
Describe (structures and outputs) of the direct pathway of the basal ganglia. (7)
Striatum - GPi/SNr - Thalamus + Cortex (and striatum)
150
Describe (structures and outputs) of the indirect pathway of the basal ganglia. (11)
Striatum - GPe - STN + GPi/SNr - Thalamus + Cortex (and striatum)
151
What is the role of the indirect pathway of the basal ganglia? (1)
Inhibits movement
152
Describe the role of dopamine in the basal ganglia. (1)
ALWAYS facilitates movement
153
What happens when dopamine from the SNc binds to D1 receptors in the striatum? (1)
Activates the direct pathway and facilitates movement.
154
What happens when dopamine from the SNc bind to D2 receptors in the striatum? (1)
Inhibits the indirect pathway to facilitate movement.
155
Give a sentence describing the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease. (1)
Death of cells in the substantia nigra pars compacta.
156
How does Parkinson's disease causes its symptoms? (4)
Less dopamine to bind D1 and D2 in striatum.
Less activation of direct pathway.
Less inhibition of indirect pathway.
Less movement.
157
Give a sentence to describe the basic pathophysiology seen in Huntington's disease. (1)
Loss of neurones in the striatum.
158
Give the three stages of progression of Huntington's disease. (3)
- Psychological and cognitive disturbances
- More movement (chorea)
- Less movement in end stages
159
What pathophysiology causes more movement and chorea in Huntington's disease? (2)
Loss of D2 medium spiny neurones in striatum.
Loss of the indirect pathway which inhibits movement.
160
What pathophysiology causes loss of movement in the end stages of Huntington's disease? (2)
Loss of D1 medium spiny neurones in striatum.
Loss of direct pathway which usually causes movement.
161
How is the body mapped in the primary motor and sensory cortices? (1)
a) Upside down with the feet near the top of the brain
b) Right way up with the head near the top of the brain
a) Upside down with the feet near the top of the brain
