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Earth resources, Impacts and Sustainability > Bulk materials part 1 > Flashcards

Bulk materials part 1 Flashcards

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1
Q

What represents the largest volume of earth materials extracted?

A

Building materials

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2
Q

What is the typical value of natural rock?

A

Low

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3
Q

What processes can be done to natural rock to add value?

A

Crushing
Cutting
Shaping
Calcining

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4
Q

What is the cheapest and most expensive rocks extracted in dollars per metric ton?

A

Cheap - Crushed stone ~$6
Expensive - slate ~$660

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5
Q

What is a dominant control on the cost of earth materials?

A

transport costs

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6
Q

What is the £/tonne km of different transport methods?

A

Lorry - 0.1
Rail - 0.04
Barge/ small ship - 0.016
Large ship - 0.002
Very large ship - 0.001

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7
Q

What are the positives of transporting by lorry?

A

Flexible
Small frequent loads

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8
Q

What problem is associated by transporting material by rail?

A

Limited to rail

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9
Q

What problems are associated by transporting materials by barge/ small ship?

A

Canal or coastal sites only

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10
Q

What transport problems are associated with large and very large ships?

A

Need deep water and special loading facilities

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11
Q

What different things can quarried stone be used for?

A

Rough construction
Rip-rap
Ashlar
Cut stone
Monumental stone
Flagstone/ paving
Slate
Terazzo
Crushed aggregate

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12
Q

What is the rough construction use of quarried stone?

A

Large blocks of rough hewn stone used for sea wall cores, bridge works and any other density filling usues
Finer mateiral for wall faces

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13
Q

What is the rip-rap use of quarried stone?

A

Large irregular shaped block (70-700kg)
Weighted supported stones for embankements, coast and river protection

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14
Q

What is the ashlar use of quarried stone?

A

rectangular bulding stone of non uniform size

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15
Q

What is the cut stone use of quarried stone?

A

Dimensional stone with textured surface
Can be thin veneers

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16
Q

What is the monumental stone use of quarried stone?

A

elaborate monuments

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17
Q

What is the flagstone use of quarried stone?

A

road construction and exterior flooring

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18
Q

What is the slate use of quarried stone?

A

Dressed roof tiles or mill stock slate
Small volume for snooker tables, lab surfaces or switch backs

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19
Q

What is the terazzo use of quarried stone?

A

Small chipped soft rock in cement for flooring / polished for smooth surface with lacing joins

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20
Q

What are the main attributes of building stone?

A

Apperance
Strength
Durability

Jefferson 1993

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21
Q

What did Robertson (1982) classify the attributes of bulding stone to be?

A

Hardness (H)
Elasticity (E)
Strength (S)
Permeability (μ)
Bulk density (Þ)
Linear thermal expansion (α)
Diffusifity (k)

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22
Q

How is hardness of bulding stone measured?

A

Moho scale

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23
Q

How is elasticity of bulding stone measured?

A

Youngs modulus

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24
Q

How is strength of bulding stone measured?

A

uniaxial compressive strength

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25
What is aggregation?
combination of density, porosity and permeability are different aggregtion measures of mineral grains and how fluids enter rock
26
What are the geological parametrs affecting thr use of building stone?
Apperance (colour/ texture) Block size and shape Lateral and vertical variability Fractures - faults, joints Heterogenous vs homogenous Frost susceptability Presence of reactive minerals Cementation Weatherings rates Clay content Colour/ colour chnage
27
What are the three broad catergories for the causes of building decay?
Chemical Physical Biological
28
How can building stone be physically weathered?
Frost action Thermal stresses Attrition by pedestrians and vehicles along with wind blown particles
28
How can buidling stone be chemically weathered?
Atmospheric gas and liquid natural and man made Soluble salts naturally in rock and created by humans (salt spreading)
29
How can buidling stone be biologically weathered?
Bacteria Algae Fungi Lichens Disruption by higher plants i.e., ivy
30
What is the problems associated with building stone for historic buildings with example?
Repairs and replacements from specific sites Portland stone - finite production, low output, long backlogs
31
How can legal status affect the ulding stone usage in historic buildings?
Alternatives not permitted leading to high profile legal cases for a named stone
32
What are sand and gravel despoits in the UK associated with?
Concentrated in glacio-fluvial and marine sedimentary proceeses past and present most extensively on outwash plains and fluvial areas following quaternary glaciations
33
What triassic resource is there for sand/ gravel?
Triassic Bunter pebble beds crushed for use (remaining resources unconsolidated)
34
What is might mean sand is uneconomic when crushed from sandstone?
Unless there are specific properties (hardness, angularity, composition)
35
What are the most extensive uk terrestrial sequences of sand & gravel?
River deposits and terraces
36
How is the economic threshold for river deposits of sand and gravel decided?
Plot size and depth (typically >600mm)
37
How thick are the thickest uk gravels?
>10m thick
38
What is left behind when gravel is extracted?
Tpically leaves basal 30-50cm which will be impure and mixed with underlying bedrock
39
# Wh What are terrestrial examples of sands and gravel?
Laterally varied potentially including muds/silts along with economically viable sand and gravel
40
What are terrestrial sands and gravels geographically constrained by?
Topographic highs and in channels, often in flat lying agricullturally productive areas
41
What is a marine example of sands and gravels?
Sands only Well sorted by marine processes
42
How fast is extarction of marine sands?
Fast ~500 tons an hour
43
What is required of marine sands so that it can be used in construction?
Washing in freshwater
44
What are the drawbacks associated with excavating marine sand desposits?
Ecologically devestating and can remove heavy metals
45
What are terrestrial extraction techniques for sand and gravel?
Working at or below water table so potentially pumped dry Face shovels/ excavators Dragline Bucket wheel excavator Screening sieves Sand and gravel conveyor
46
What are the advantages of face shovels/ excavators?
Low capacity Versatile Cheap
47
What factors needs to be considered when wanting to use a dragline to excavate sand and gravel?
medium capacity less versatile than face shovels Expensive
48
What factors needs to be considered when wanting to use bucket wheel excavators to extract sand and gravel?
Very high capacity Very expensive None present in UK currently
49
How are extracted sand and gravels transported for on site processing?
Truck or conveyor belt
50
How is material extracted and what is rejected when extracting sand and gravel?
Screens from coarse to fine with anything above 80mm being rejected
51
What might the screens for processing sand and gravel look like?
Pebbles 80-50mm Gravels 50-20mm Pea grit 20-5mm Coarse sand 5-2mm Fine sand 2-1mm Fines (waste) <0.5mm
52
# Private company cotswold 2021 What is the value of gravel at source?
1m3= 1.41 tonnes Per ton value = £13.03 Extraction/ processing waste = 80kg per ton
53
What is the value of sand at source?
1m3= 1.52 tonne value per ton = £16.21 Extraction/ processing waste = 50kg per ton
54
What costs are associated with extracting sand and gravel?
PLanning and site aquisition Exvation costs (vehicles, fuel etc) Environemtnal protection and pumping Processing costs (grading, storing) Labouor Weighing and sale cost Landscaping and restoration
55
What can diused excavation pits be used for?
Landfill Recreational lakes Ecological reserves
56
What is the difference between cement, mortar and concrete?
Cement - chemical binder Mortar- cement mixed with sand Concrete- cement mixed with sands and gravel
57
What are the ingredients of cement?
Limestone (CaCO) Low amounts Fe, Mg, Mn SHale or clay - alumina (Al2O3) Shale clay or sand provides - silica
58
What are some occasional ingredients in cement?
Iron products Gypsum or annhydrite
59
Why are iron products used in cement?
harden the cement faster
60
Why might gypsum/ annhydrite be used in cement?
controls setting time
61
What is the dominant ingredient in cement and how does this affect the location of cement works?
Limestone (10:1) Cement works near limestone quarries
62
What are the steps in producing cement?
Mining limestone Crushing and grinding (Addition of iron and clay) Griding and mixing Roasting (1500c) (gympus added) Grinding Packaged and shipped
63
WHat type of reaction is cement?
Water driven
64
What is produced in the cement reaction?
interlocking calcium and aluminiun crystals
65
WHat does cement bind with?
Porous materials upon contact
66
What is rebar?
Iron rods placed into cement for additional strength and support
67
What is the shelf life of cement?
Naturally set in 2-5 years (without water or damp)
68
What are clays?
Groups of fine grained, hydrated minerals with layer structure at the atomic level
69
What are some examples of clays?
Kaolinite ( China clay) Hallosylite Illite Montmorillonite Hectorite Chlorite Attapulgite
70
How do clays form when settling out of soulution?
Settling of fine grained patricles from suspension in low energy environments like lakes and pools Relatively pure but often high levels of organics Typically for construction
71
How do clays form from natural weathring?
Weathering of feldspars (typically in igenous) Mineralogically pure (paper and ceramic production)
72
How do clays form from flocculation?
mixing of natural water bodies (estuarine) Laterally variable HIgh levels of reactive sulphur and maybe high bacteria levels | Not recognised source
73
What is ball clay?
Ultrafine particles which are easily cut and shaped
74
What is the difference between china and ball clay?
China coarser and not as malleable
75
How is china clay processed?
Washed from quarry by high pressure hose and flows to lowest quarry point Slurry pumped to surface for processing Kaolinite seperated by settling Remaining slurry removed and dried
76
What are also removed by settling from the slurry when wanting clay?
heavier minerals like quartz and mica
77
What is the problem associated with large settling pools?
dangerous and hazardous
78
What are the uses of clay in the UK?
95% of all uk bricks
79
What problems are associated with using clay for bricks?
Transport limits value so usually locally sourced
80
What is the carboniferous mudstone and what are its uses?
Northern england and central scotland Variable quality Small amount brick suitable (too high in carbon and sulphur) 30% uk consumption for clay pipes
81
81
What are the uses of the Etruria formation? (clay)
Midlands Carboniferous age High quality (close to ideal brick clay) MOstly used by clay roof tilers
82
What are the uses of the mercia mudstone group for clay?
Triassic age Midlands Mineralogy gives distinctive pale bodied housing/ engineering brick
83
What are some examples of uk brick clays?
Fireclays Oxford clays Weald and wadhurst clays
84
What ate the characteristics of the fireclays?
Carboniferous coalfields Midlands and north uk Produced in opencast coal extraction Les than 7% uk consumption High value (extraction cost and historic value)
85
What are the characteristics of the peterborough memeber 'oxford clays'?
Jurassic age Cambridgeshire/ Bedfordshire High C content Unusual manufacturing process (pressed bricks fired in kiln) Production limited but historically important
86
What is the age and location of the weald and wadhurst clays?
Cretaceous Southeast Endland
87

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