Byzantium/Islam Flashcards

Question

Prelude to the Fourth Crusade

Answer 1

The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204) was originally launched by Pope Innocent III to reclaim Jerusalem, with a novel strategy of attacking through Egypt. However, due to financial difficulties, the crusaders became entangled in Byzantine politics. Seeking transportation, they turned to Venice, which led to the reconquest of Zara (1202) from the Hungarians as payment. Meanwhile, Prince Alexios, son of the deposed Byzantine emperor Isaac II, promised financial aid and church submission to the pope in exchange for help in reclaiming the throne from his uncle, Alexios III. When these promises were unfulfilled, tensions escalated, culminating in the Sack of Constantinople (April 1204), the establishment of the Latin Empire of Constantinople, and the city remaining under Western rule until 1261.

Answer 2

Preached the Fourth Crusade to recover Jerusalem

Answer 3

April 1204: Constantinople was sacked by crusaders and became the Latin Empire of Constantinople until 1261.

Answer 4

Muhammad (570-632) is regarded in Islam as the final prophet, receiving divine revelations that form the Qur'an. Born into the Quraysh tribe in Mecca, he married Khadija in 596 and began receiving revelations in 610, marking the start of his prophetic mission. Facing opposition, some of his followers emigrated to Abyssinia (614-615), and after Khadija's death in 619, Muhammad himself migrated to Medina in 622 (Hijra), a pivotal event in Islamic history. He engaged in warfare against the Meccans (624-627), culminating in the bloodless conquest of Mecca (630)/ By his death in 632, he had unified much of the Arabian Peninsula under Islam. His life is detailed in extensive but sometimes conflicting narrative sources, shaping Islamic tradition and law.

Answer 5

Traditions; following the example of the prophet

Answer 6

o Origins: 600-750. o Golden Age: 750-1250 (the Mongol invasion, not necessarily the case but it is a very conventional way to divide history). o Age of Empires: 1250-1750. – A more conversative period.

Answer 7

o Expansion: 600-750. o Consolidation: 750-9th century. o Fragmentation: 9th-10th century.

Answer 8

ca. 570-632

Answer 9

The Rashidun Caliphate (632-661), meaning "Rightly Guided," refers to the rule of the first four caliphs who succeeded Muhammad. Since Muhammad left no surviving sons, his successors were chosen from his Quraysh tribe, following pre-Islamic hierarchical traditions. These caliphs were: - Abu Bakr (632-634) - Umar ibn al-Khattab (634-644) - Uthman ibn Affan (644-656) (initiated the first codification of the Qur’an) - Ali ibn Abi Talib (656-661) This period was marked by the expansion of the Muslim community, rapid territorial conquests, and later, in the 9th century, the canonization of these four rulers as the Rightly Guided Caliphs in Islamic scholarship.

Answer 10

Between Ali and Mu awiya, founder of the Umayyad dynasty (656-661). -> Eventually sparks the Sunni-Shi i divide (even though they did not call themselves that).

Answer 11

Between the Umayyads and Ibn al-Zubayr (683-692) -> Umayyad victory establishes a dynasty succession. – This meant the start of a dynastic principle, it is about a single clan in the wider tribe.

Answer 12

The Umayyad dynasty refers to a powerful Arab-Muslim ruling family that established the first hereditary dynasty of the Islamic Caliphate. Originating after the death of the Prophet Muhammad, the Umayyad Caliphate (661–750 CE) governed a vast, multilingual, multiethnic, and multireligious empire with its capital moved to Damascus. The dynasty relied heavily on Syrian troops and integrated Muslim slogans and propaganda to maintain power. Their rule was marked by opposition from various Muslim elites, leading to revolts and wars of succession. Additionally, tax revolts occurred, particularly as non-Muslims faced higher taxes and were excluded from high offices. The Umayyad dynasty represents a shift from the traditions of Roman governance, marking the beginning of a distinctly new era in the history of the Islamic world.

Answer 13

The Abbasid Revolution (747–750) was a revolt that overthrew the Umayyad Caliphate, driven by discontent among newly converted Muslims. The Abbasids moved the capital to Baghdad in 762, marking the start of the Islamic Golden Age. However, internal conflict, such as the civil war between Harun al-Rashid's sons (809–813), and reliance on Turkish slave troops weakened the caliphate. The Abbasid's dependence on these troops led to higher taxes and political instability. By 861, the assassination of Caliph al-Muta signaled the start of the caliphate's decline and fragmentation. One member of the Umayyad dynasty survived and emigrated to Spain were he started a new dynasty.

Answer 14

Muslim dynasty in Egypt (909-1171)

Answer 15

Emperorship is defined by the elite, the people and the army. The emperor had to connect with these groups. Most important is that emperorship was not a formalised system, there were no rules (election/succession) for emperors. - Continuity between Rome and Byzantium.

Answer 16

First among others; term used instead of 'emperor'

Answer 17

In Byzantium the emperor had both roles, the secular and the head of the religion. He was not officially the head of the church, but he intervened a lot.

Answer 18

Kadealis published a influential work, The Byzantine Republic, where he mentioned the term res publica. He says that there is a continuation of the Roman ways, and that the Byzantine empire was a republic. He says that there was ‘nothing new’.

Answer 19

Flaig said that emperorship was about acceptance. There emperor must have been accepted. Only when he was accepted by all groups he could rule. If one group didn’t accept, he couldn’t rule.

Answer 20

Pheilshiffter says that not only the patriarch was important, but also the monks (fourth group).

Answer 21

In Caesar Rules Olivier Hekster says that Roman emperorship means something else to different people in different times.

Answer 22

Verhoeven says that Justinian is the first Byzantine emperor or perhaps the last Roman one.

Answer 23

How the common people called the emperor, it went beyond just 'emperor'

Answer 24

The Nika Insurrection (532) was a major revolt in Constantinople during the reign of Emperor Justinian. It arose from tensions between the two dominant factions of chariot racing, the Greens and the Blues, in the Hippodrome. After a clash between the factions and the emperor's refusal to pardon those arrested, the Greens and Blues united in rebellion, chanting "Nika" to demand a new emperor. The rebellion led to violent suppression by General Belisarius, resulting in the deaths of 30,000–40,000 people and the destruction of parts of Constantinople. Despite the devastation, Justinian's rule was ultimately reaffirmed.

Answer 25

A beautiful church built by Justinian after the Nika Insurrection.

Answer 26

The entire urban structure was shaped by the need for a procession/ceremonial route. This is typical for Byzantium, there were no processions in Rome.

Answer 27

The most important source is from the 10th century by emperor Constantine VII Porphyrogenitius (913-959). In the book of ceremonies it is mentioned what the people should do when an emperor is crowned.

Answer 28

She was the mother of Constantine. She discovered the holy cross of Jesus. Her tomb in the Vatican museum is considered not suitable for woman. It is theorised that her tomb was fist for Constantine. She became a saint. Woman could be important, but they had to be religious.

Answer 29

The sister of Theodosius II (r. 401-450). The description in one of the districts of Istanbul, it is mentioned that Theodosius was victorious because of his sisters. She had a positive reputation. It is said that she was devoted to God (virginity), and that she inspired his sisters to do the same. She was a devoted virgin, so she had no children. She married Martian who accepted her vows, so that they could rule the empire together. She is praised that she kicked the heretics out, and she was called the new Helena.

Answer 30

The wife of Justinian. She is praised positively. She was a coruler (equal!). In an inscription, there she is mentioned as a god crowned Theodora. She is credited in a role in building the Hagia Sophia. She is also depicted equal in the mosaic in Ravenna. But Procopius writes a completely different story in his ‘secret history’. There she is depicted as a prostitute and a negative influence on Justinian. She is the sole ruler of the empire.

Answer 31

She ruled the empire from 797 to 802 as a empress regnant. Wife of Leo IV. Leo’s father wanted the daughter of Pepin as a wife for his son. That couldn’t happen, so Irene became his wife. Leo IV was the first emperor born in the palace (porphyrogenitus). Leo died, so Irene became regent for her son Constantine VI (b. 771?). She is depicted as basillisa on a coin where she is depicted twice on one coin. She had to deal with al lot, the Abbasids, the slafes. She ended iconoclasm. Therefore she is praised. This was a role for woman that was excepted. It was not accepted that she was a sole ruler. Charlemagne was crowned Roman emperor in the west because of it.

Answer 32

The source for the Alexiad. She was the oldest child of Alexios I Komnenos (r. 1081-1118) and Irene Doukania. She wanted to be emperor herself. She was frustrated that she couldn’t be (her step-brother became emperor). This is the only Byzantine source we have on the fist crusade.

Answer 33

A Byzantine Empress of the Ottonian empire (983-991) in Nijmegen. She became the wife of Otto II. A marriage between a Byzantine and a ottionians was possible. She was depicted negatively. She was Greek and she took a bath everyday and she eat with fork and spoon, and that was negative. But she did rule over the Ottonian empire for a long time as a regent for her son. The chappel on Valkshof was build by her, and she brought Sinterklaas.

Answer 34

deputy/substitute/successor

Answer 35

680: Husayn son of Ali is attacked and killed in Kerbala on his way to join rebels in Kufa. - Main reason for the split. Shiite: Leader must be from the family of Muhammed.

Answer 36

- Consolidation of the caliphate and centralization of the fiscal administration. - First caliph to impart a distinctly Islamic character to caliphal ideology through public media (coins (without images!), inscriptions, buildings). - Credited with the translation of state registers into Arabic (to piss of a Greek clerk, allegedly). - Reform of the imperial currency.

Answer 37

The Abbasid dynasty (750–1258) emerged after the Abbasid Revolution, which capitalized on dissatisfaction with the Umayyads' marginalization of new converts to Islam. The Abbasids, tracing their lineage to Hashim, the great-grandfather of Ali, shifted the capital to Baghdad in 762, making it the political and cultural heart of the empire. During the reign of Harun al-Rashid (786–809), the Abbasids reached their Golden Age, marked by advancements in science, culture, and diplomacy, including ties with Charlemagne and the foundation of the Bayt al-Hikma (House of Wisdom). However, after Harun's death, a civil war between his sons, al-Amin and al-Ma'mun (809–813), led to al-Ma'mun's victory. The dynasty increasingly relied on Turkish and Central Asian slave troops, who became less loyal over time, contributing to internal instability. By 836, the Abbasids constructed Samarra, but in 861, the assassination of Caliph al-Mutawakkil by Turkish retainers marked the beginning of further decline.

Answer 38

Harim (forbidden), by extension the parts of a house to which access is forbidden – especially the living quarters of the wives, concubines, younger children, unmarried/widowed female relatives. o The education of every caliph begins here. A lot of competition. The term as such seldomly appears in Abbasid sources. Has its own administrative hierarchy with a stewardess (qahramana), eunuchs and female servants.

Answer 39

Divided the Roman empire in four parts with each their own emperor (tetrarchy (293-305)). This system failed. System of national taxation. Census of all taxable assets, calculated in iuga (for cultivated lands) and capita (for the agricultural workforce). Seperated military from civilian functions, continued by Constantine.

Answer 40

Themes (Thémata) refers to the military and administrative divisions established in the Byzantine Empire from the mid-7th century onward, in response to external pressures from Arab conquerors and Slavic invasions. These divisions were designed to provide more efficient local governance and defense. The first themes included Anatolikon, Armeniakon, and Opsikion (c. 630–680), with later additions such as Thrakia, Thrakesion, and Kibyrraioton (naval). Each theme was led by a strategos (general) who combined both military and administrative powers. Civilian officials were responsible for recruiting soldiers, calculating and recording taxes, and managing resources. Though these reforms helped manage a shrinking empire, they did not prevent Muslim raids on key regions like Damascus. The period also saw changes in coinage, with gold retaining its value while silver coins disappeared and bronze coins lost their worth.

Answer 41

Codex Theodosianus (437): 2500 edited and revised texts of laws issued between 313 and 437, including laws on Christianity. Further reform under Justinian: Codex constitutionum (529) summarized in 12 books in the Corpus Iuris Civilis (534). Around 580 Nomokanon – collections of ecclesiastical law (canon law + civil law). Nomokanon in Fourteen Titles (under Herakleios (r. 610-41), second ed. 882/3 with prologue by the Patriarch Photios). Ekloge (740) issued by Leo III (r. 717-747). During first period of iconoclasm. This collection of civil law enhanced rights of women and children. Application of capital punishments also became more limited (less harsh). Basilika ordered by Basil I (r. 867-886) and completed by Leo VI ‘the Wise’ (r. 886-912). Start of the Macedonian dynasty!!

Answer 42

Eunuchs (castrated men, mostly slaves) had an important role at the Byzantine court, certainly in later times.

Answer 43

Economic rule: If the lighter coins are the same value as the heavier coins, you will be more likely to pay with the lighter coins which drive the heavier coins out of the market.

Answer 44

A Pagarch was the head of a district (pagarchy) in the provincial administration of the early Islamic period, particularly during the time of Arab rule in regions formerly under Byzantine control. The pagarch was responsible for local governance and the collection of taxes, with minimal direct Arab intervention initially. In the late 7th and early 8th centuries, as the empire’s administrative structure evolved, pagarchs were moved frequently to prevent any potential conflicts of loyalty with local elites. This shift also led to a more direct involvement of Arabs in local administration, with the eventual removal of local duces (military governors) and greater centralization of authority.

Answer 45

Christ was of the same substance as his father, which made him also divine. – End of Arianism.

Answer 46

Establishment of the hierarchy of the patriarch: Rome – Constantinople – Alexandria – Antioch – Jerusalem.

Answer 47

Mary is considered mother of God (not just Christ) + Condemnation Nestorians.

Answer 48

The orthodox view that Christ possessed two natures, the human and divine, in one person, laid down as the normative doctrine.

Answer 49

1054: The Great Schism between Western christendom and Eastern orthodoxy as a result of the filioque controversy (in reality probably not that important).

Answer 50

Biography to demonstrate the sanctity of the holy man or woman portrayed but also a source for Byzantine social and cultural history, for understanding everyday life and mentalités.

Answer 51

Religious History, also known as A History of the Monks of Syria, contains the biographies of thirty (ten living) ascetics.

Answer 52

Those men wanted to become closer to God by imitating Christ by living in solitude and their discipline. Example of Saint Anthony. They went to live a harsh, solitary life in the dessert. Hermits. – This was seen as superior to monastery life.

Answer 53

Hermits who lived on pillars. The first one was Symeon, it was said that he lived on this pillar for 36 years. It was not really a solitary life, since they had followers who visited them for advise. Daniel was a follower of Symeon, he set up his pillar in Constantinople. They were also found in an urban context. They could be women, but we do not have many traces left of female stylites. This phenomenon is not found in the West.

Answer 54

Emperor Heraclius (610–641) was a Byzantine ruler known for his military campaigns and religious significance. In 614, Jerusalem was captured by the Persians, who took Christian relics, including the True Cross. Heraclius later recovered these relics in 629 and triumphantly returned the True Cross to Jerusalem in 630. However, with the Arab conquest of Jerusalem in 637–638, the relics were moved to Constantinople, where they were kept in the imperial palace, transforming it into a sacred space. While there is no evidence of widespread popular devotion, these relics were displayed to foreign ambassadors and used in processions, emphasizing their symbolic rather than visible presence.

Answer 55

1. Testimony of Faith (shahada). 2. Worshipping God five times per day (salat). 3. Abstinence from food, drink and intercourse during the month of Ramadan (sawm). 4. Almsgiving of the poor (zakat). 5. Pilgrimage to Mecca at least once in once lifetime during the month of Dhu I-Hijja (lit. Professor of the Pilgrimage) (hajj).

Answer 56

The Hajj is the Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, mandated in the Quran and considered a key marker of Muslim identity. It predates Islam, with pre-Islamic poetry referencing Quraysh's role in managing the Ka’ba, circumambulations, and sacrificial offerings. Initially a regional practice, it was later universalized and linked to Abraham (Ibrahim) and Adam in Islamic tradition. The pilgrimage became a political and religious institution, with increasing involvement from ruling authorities, especially during the Abbasid period. Over time, visiting the Prophet Muhammad’s grave in Medina became associated with the Hajj. However, debates arose within the Muslim community regarding acts of commemoration, with some viewing them as idolatrous, leading to incidents like the Qarmatian sack of Mecca in 930.

Answer 57

Pious visitation or pilgrimage to tombs, shrines, or living saints for the purpose of obtaining blessing and knowledge. This is more common for Shi'ites to do.

Answer 58

o Prophets of the Abrahamic tradition. -> General overlap with Jews and Christians (as well as between different Muslim branches), since those prophets were the same (for example: Moses). o Family and Companions of Muhammed (including the first 4 caliphs). -> Confessional differences (e.g. the role of the descendants of Ali in Shiism). o Medieval saints (ascetics, mystics, scholars, rulers, etc.). The most controversial category of saints. Saints whom were recognized after the rise of Islam.

Answer 59

- Heretical innovation (bid’a). - Idolatry (shirk). - Immoral behaviour (most notably the mingling of the sexes, the drinking of wine). - Blending with Christian/Jewish practices.

Answer 60

- Heretical Ziyara: The livings wants something from the dead (request, seeking his intercession). - Permissible Ziyara: The dead obtains something from the living since the visitor is in a place of reflection where he lets the dead into his heart.

Answer 61

Man of the North, Scandinavian in origin

Answer 62

Duchy in France ruled by Normans to defend Northern France from the attacks of Scandinavian people.

Answer 63

827–1052

Answer 64

1030–1071

Answer 65

1098 – Establishment of the Principality of Antioch (lost in 1268).

Answer 66

Unified Norman territories, crowned King of Sicily in 1130. His father Roger I was the first Norman ruler of Sicily. 1139 – Pope Innocent II acknowledges Roger II as King of Sicily after military defeat.

Answer 67

- Secretary of the Almohad governor of Granada. - Embarks on the Hajj in 1183-1185. - Writes a travelogue (Rihla). - Stops in Sicily between December 1184-April 1185. - A view on the Norman cultural experience seen through the eyes of a Muslim outsider.

Answer 68

Motto/Signature; Proof that the Norman rulers of Sicily knew Arabic traditions and that some eunuchs at the court were Muslim.

Answer 69

- Born Ceuta. - Travels widely in his youth across the Western mediterranean, Balkans, England, Anatolia and the Aegean. - Enters the service of Roger II around 1145. - 1154 Completes the geographical Kitab Nuzhat al—mushtaq fi ikhtiraq al-afaq (‘The Pleasure Excursion of One Who is Eager to Traverse the Regions of the World’) and a World Map commonly known as the tabula rogeriana.

Answer 70

1206-1221 Muslim revolt in western Sicily as a result of increasing episodes of violence against Muslims -> eventually put down by Frederick II (1198-1250). 1223 Tens of thousand of Muslims are deported to Lucera in Apulia and Grifalco in Calarbia.

Answer 71

- Temüjin is born in 1162 (or 1155 or 1167, depending on the source) into the Borjigin clan (important one). - 1171 forced into exile after the (alleged) assassination of his father. - 1190s-early 1200s spent unifying the Mongolian tribes. - 1206: Proclaimed Ghinggis Khan (‘oceanic chief’). - 1210s: begin of the expansion towards Jin China.

Answer 72

The eldest son gets the herds and the youngest son gets the immovable property. – underlaying system: nomadic.

Answer 73

- The Golden Horde; Russia/Eastern Europe. - The Chagatai Khanate; Central Asia. - The Ilkhanate; Middle East. - Khanate of the Great Khan; China/Mongolia.

Answer 74

- Transformation of the Mongol domains from a tributary to a tax-based empire. - Regulation of public law, combat and inheritance (yassa). - Establishment of a empire-wide postal system. - Introduction of paper money.

Answer 75

- 1219 The massacre of the Mongol caravan in Otrar leads to retaliatory expedition against the Khwarezmian empire. - 1220-1221 Fall and devastation of some of the main centres of Islamicate Central Asia (Samarkand, Balkh, Merv, Nishapur). - 1221 The Khwarezmian shah Muhammed II flees west while his son Jalal ad-Din takes refuge in Northen India.  Mongol pursuit leads to further raids into Iran, Caucasus and Russian steppe.

Answer 76

1258 by the Mongols under Hülegül. In this period Baghdad was less important and the sack of Baghdad was not as dramatic as the Muslims say.

Answer 77

1322/23 Treaty of Aleppo; The only treaty ever signed from the Mongols with the Muslims. Acceptance of a border.

Answer 78

- Born in Hamdan to a Jewish apothecary. - Enters the service of the Il-khanid ruler Abaqa (d. 1282). - 1298 is named grand vizier of Ghāzān khan (d. 1304) and continues to serve in this capacity under his successor Öljaitü (d. 1316). - 1317 fells into disgrace after the ascension of Abū Saʿīd Bahādur (d. 1335). - 1318 is executed under the accusation of involvement in the death of Öljaitü. - Rebranding the Khan as King of Islam; Muslim/Iranian/Mongol identity.

Answer 79

Reconquest of Constantinople against the Latin Kingdom of Constantinople

Answer 80

o Pachymeres is our most important source on this topic. o Italians had altered the Hagia Sophia according to the Western church, Palaeologos changed it all back. o The Empire did not really recover from the Latin occupation. – Palaiologan Renaissance is relative.

Answer 81

The fall of Constantinople in 1453 was the result of a combination of long-term internal decline and external pressure. The most important underlying factors were: Weakened Byzantine Empire – After the Latin occupation (1204-1261), the Byzantine Empire never fully recovered. Civil wars (1321-1379) further weakened the state, and attempts to reunite with the Western Church failed, leaving Byzantium diplomatically isolated. Ottoman Expansion – The Ottomans steadily conquered Byzantine territories, starting with Osman’s campaigns (1298-1301). The capture of Bursa (1326) and Gallipoli (1354) gave the Ottomans a foothold in Europe, surrounding Constantinople. Economic Decline – The empire’s economy deteriorated due to territorial losses, reliance on Italian merchants, and multiple blockades of Constantinople, starving the city. Mongol Influence on Anatolia – The Mongol defeat of the Seljuqs (1243) and later revolts (1298) destabilized Anatolia, allowing the rise of Turkish Beyliks, including the Ottomans. Technological Superiority of the Ottomans – The first use of cannons (1422) in the Ottoman siege of Constantinople foreshadowed the ultimate fall of the city. Mehmed II (r. 1451-1481) perfected this strategy, using massive artillery to breach the city walls in 1453.

Answer 82

Founder of the Ottoman dynasty

Answer 83

Paul Wittek, The Rise of the Ottoman Empire, 1983: Very important in the historiography of the Ottoman Empire. The early Ottoman state was constructed upon an ideology of Islamic holy war against non-Muslims = Gaza Thesis. – Nowadays criticized; it also had a secular meaning. Not just this spread of Islam since Islam was then not as strict as later on.

Answer 84

- Barbaro: Eyewitness. - Doukas: Most important Byzantine source, not an eyewitness. - Kritovoulos: Greek who served Mehmed after the conquest, not an eyewitness. - Nestor-Iskander: Russian novelist who was on a pilgrimage to Constantinople, he was captured and converted to Islam (Turkish name of Iskander). He was an eyewitness of the conquest, but managed to escape. - Sphrantzes: Byzantine high officer, an eyewitness. - Tursun Beg: Our only Ottoman source, he was the biographer of Mehmed II and was with him when he conquered the city.

Answer 85

Last Byzantine Emperor

Answer 86

The Muslim sultan who succeeded in taking Constantinople

Answer 87

He tried to held back Mehmed II from the siege, they did not like each other. After the conquest Mehmed II imprisoned and executed him – revenge.

Answer 88

Genoese nobleman and captain: The Western help against the Muslims in 1453, he came on time but it wasn’t enough so you could also say that he came too late.

Answer 89

6 april 1453

Answer 90

29 May 1453

Answer 91

The Hagia Sophia is a monumental structure in Istanbul, originally built as a Byzantine church in the 6th century under Emperor Justinian I. It became the religious and political center of the Eastern Orthodox Church until the Ottoman conquest of Constantinople in 1453, when Sultan Mehmed II converted it into a mosque. Key Transformations: Ottoman Era (1453-1934): Mehmed II made only minor modifications, such as adding a minaret and Islamic banners while maintaining some Christian elements, including depictions of Mary. Later, the mosaics were covered with plaster. Republican Era (1934-2020): Under Atatürk, the Hagia Sophia was secularized and turned into a museum, emphasizing both its Christian and Islamic heritage. Modern Era (2020-Present): In 2020, President Erdogan reconverted the Hagia Sophia into a mosque, sparking debate, as many locals believed there were already enough mosques in Istanbul.

Answer 92

Term introduced in the 15th century by Laonikos Chalkokondyles and propagated by Hieronymus Wolf. The Byzantines called themselves Roman.

Answer 93

330-ca. 700. Christian God replaces ‘pagan’ gods. ‘Restoration of the empire’ Justinian.

Answer 94

ca. 700-1204. Continuous contraction and territorial redefinition. Iconoclasm. Leo II and Constantine V. Macedonian ‘Renaissance’. Basil I, Constantine VII and Basil II.

Answer 95

1261-1453. Palaiologan ‘Renaissance’. Disintegration and fragmentation Conquest / Fall of Constantinople.

Answer 96

Creating the legend of a proper line of succession from father to son (‘born in purple’).

Answer 97

A military emperor who conquered and defeated the Bulgars, whom had become the most difficult and important enemy of the Byzantine Empire.

Answer 98

He was defeated by the leader of the Seljuqs (Alp Arslan). He made a mistake by splitting up his army while the Seljuqs were very near. He was than captured by his enemies, which was seen as a huge humiliation. He was blinded and died in exile.

Answer 99

Tribe of Muhammed

Answer 100

Conquers Baghdad in 1055 and is named sultan, begin of Seljuq control over the caliphate.

Answer 101

Emperors born in the purple chamber of the royal palace, this meant that they were legitimate rulers.

Answer 102

‘Gods deputy’. Version found in the Qur’an. Attested in documentary evidence, anecdotes and court poetry of the Rashidun (632-661) and Umayyad (661-750) periods. Continues to be used intermittently throughout the Abbasid (750-1258) and later periods.

Answer 103

‘Deputy of God’s Messenger’. Gains currency in Muslim political theory from the ninth century. Using this term suggests that you will follow in Muhammeds footsteps. By emphasizing the caliph as Muhammed’s successor, they legitimize the need for Hadith scholars.

Answer 104

The "First Civil War" (656–661), also known as the First Fitna, was a conflict within the early Islamic community over succession following the assassination of Caliph Uthman ibn Affan. It led to a division between supporters of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of Prophet Muhammad, and those backing Mu’awiya I, the governor of Syria and a relative of Uthman. Ali’s supporters (Shi’at Ali) became the first Shi’ites. The conflict ended with Ali’s assassination, leaving Mu’awiya as the victor and establishing the Umayyad Caliphate.

Answer 105

o Cousin and son in law of Muhammed. o His partisans (shi’at Ali) are the first Shi’ites. o Moves capital to Kufa. o Assassinated.

Answer 106

Victor of the First 'Civil war' o Governor of Syria. o Second cousin of Uthman. o Last one standing after the death of Ali.

Answer 107

They believe that a khalif should be a descendant of Muhammed, through the linage of Fatimi and Ali.

Answer 108

o Capital moved to Damascus. o Nominates his son heir apparent. – Difference with before: Hereditary rulership! Not everyone agrees with this.

Answer 109

o Muslim notables of the Hijaz refuse the oath of allegiance. o 680: Husayn son of Ali is attacked and killed in Kerbala on his way to join rebels in Kufa. – Main reason for the sunni/shiite split. o 683: An Umayyad army attacks Medina. o 684: Death of Mu’awiya II (son of Yazid I)  The leaderships of the Umayyad house passes to the Marwanid branch).

Answer 110

o Power base in Damascus. o Succession within the Umayyad branch of Quraysh. o Supported by Syrian tribes.

Answer 111

(later Shiites): o Power base in Kufa. o Martyrdom of Husayn son of Ali in Kerbala. o Succession within the Hashemite/Alid branch of Quraysh.  Same branch of the Abbasids. o Find resonate among new converts to Islam.

Answer 112

o Power base in Medina. o Succession within Quraysh (i.e. not a single branch thereof). o Supported by descendants of the Prophets Companions.

Answer 113

o Immortalized in the Arabian Nights  Golden age (with the benefit of hindsight). o Diplomatic relationships, for example with Charlemagne. o Foundation of the Bayt al-Hikma (house of wisdom) = a centre of learning -> s.c. Translation Movement.

Answer 114

Civil war between the sons of Harun al-Rashid; al-Amin and al-Ma’um. -> al Ma’um (son of a central Asian concubine) wins, killing his brother. Military important.

Answer 115

945: Baghdad and the caliph fall under the control of the Iranian (12e) Shiite Buyids who style themselves shahanshah (‘King of Kings’)

Answer 116

(437): 2500 edited and revised texts of laws issued between 313 and 437, including laws on Christianity.

Answer 117

Further reform under Justinian: Codex constitutionum (529) summarized in 12 books in the Corpus Iuris Civilis (534). o The Digest or Pandects (50 books of approved commentaries). o Institutes (handbook for law students). o Novels (Novellae): New laws issued by Justinian (with additions by later emperors).

Answer 118

Around 580 Nomokanon – collections of ecclesiastical law (canon law + civil law). Those are legislation to solve issues in the Christian church, for example about the character of Christ. Solved in Councils and then they became part of the canon law.

Answer 119

(740) issued by Leo III (r. 717-747). During first period of iconoclasm. This collection of civil law enhanced rights of women and children. Application of capital punishments also became more limited (less harsh).

Answer 120

The army is a salaried force settled on the land

Answer 121

The army is a salaried force stationed in fortified garrison cities -> Units divided into tribes.

Answer 122

The Hagia Sophia was already not a completely Christian Orthodox church before the conquest.

Answer 123

o With the conquest of Constantinople by Sultan Mehmed II, the prophecy of the Prophet Mohammed that the city would one day be conquered by Muslims came true. o The half-dome above the apse had collapsed on the night of the prophet Mohammed’s birth, a Byzantine delegation was sent to the prophet, who approved its reconstruction, knowing that the dome one day would serve Muslims. o The dome was held in place by the miracle of the prophet and by a special mortar of sand from Mecca, water from the holy spring of Zemzem near the Ka'ba, and saliva from the prophet.. = Myths created by Mehmed II

Byzantium/Islam Flashcards

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