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MCAT Behavioral Sciences > C2 - Sensation And Perception > Flashcards

C2 - Sensation And Perception Flashcards

1
Q

What is sensation

A

The taking of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other info from our internal and external environment to convert into electrical signals in the nervous system

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2
Q

What is perception

A

The process of processing information within the CNS in order to make sense of the informations significance

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3
Q

What is proximal and distal stimuli?

A

Proximal stimuli directly interacts with and affects the sensory receptors, this informs the observer about the presence of distal stimuli

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4
Q

What is psychophysics

A

The study of the relationships between the physical nature of stimuli and the sensation/perceptions they evoke

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5
Q

Ganglia

A

Collections of neurons cell bodies found outside of CNS

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6
Q

What are osmoreceptors?

A

Receptors that respond to changes in osmolarity of the blood (water homeostasis)

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7
Q

Sensory stimuli is transmitted where in the brain?

A

Projection areas, which further analyze the sensory input

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8
Q

All sensory information is sent to the CNS in the form of…

A

Action potentials

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9
Q

What is threshold

A

The minimum amount of stimuli that renders a difference in perception

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10
Q

What are the 3 main types of thresholds

A

-Absolute threshold

-Threshold of conscious perception

-Difference threshold

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11
Q

What is absolute threshold

A

The minimum intensity at which a stimulus must be to be transduced (converted into action potentials)

In other words it is about how bright, far, loud, or intense a stimulus must be before it is sensed

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12
Q

What does the stimulus never reach if it is below the absolute threshold

A

The central nervous system

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13
Q

What is the threshold of conscious perception

A

The level of intensity that a stimulus must pass in order to be consciously perceived by the brain

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14
Q

What is subliminal perception?

A

Information that is received by the CNS but does not cross the threshold of conscious perception

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15
Q

Main difference in being below absolute threshold vs below threshold of conscious perception

A

Below absolute threshold the stimulus will never be transduced and thus never reach the CNS

Below the threshold of conscious perception the stimulus arrives at the CNS but does not reach the higher-order brain regions that control attention and consciousness

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16
Q

What else is the difference threshold called?

A

The just noticeable difference (jnd)

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17
Q

What is the difference threshold?

A

The minimum change in magnitude required for an observer to perceive that two different stimulus are, in fact, different

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18
Q

If below the difference threshold, 2 possibly different stimuli will seem to the observer as…

A

The same

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19
Q

What happens in a common psychophysical discrimination testing experiment?

A

A participant is presented with a stimulus, it is then varied slightly until they report a change in stimuli, it is then recorded as the just noticeable difference

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20
Q

The just noticeable difference or difference threshold is usually reported or recorded as…

A

A fraction or percentage

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21
Q

Who was often credited with the observation that difference thresholds are proportional and must be computed as percentages?

A

Ernst Heinrich Weber

Often called the Webers Law

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22
Q

What does the signal detection theory study?

A

The effects of nonsensory factors such as experiences (memory), motives, and expectations on perception of stimuli

Both external and internal factors

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23
Q

Example in signal detection theory; how loud would someone have to tell your name in a crowd for you to notice? Well this comes down to what factors?

A

-Environmental factors
-Social factors
-Psychological factors
-Personality factors

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24
Q

A basic signal detection experiments consists of many trials, what is presented in these trials?

A

During each trial a stimulus may or may not be presented

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25
Q

Trials in which the signal is presented, and those without a signal are called…

A

-Noisy trials- are those with a presented signal

-Catch trials- are those without a presented signal

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26
Q

What are the 4 possible outcomes for each trial in a signal detection theory expirement?

A

A hit - a trial in which the signal is presented and the subject correctly perceives the signal

A miss - a trial in which the subject fails to perceive the presented signal

A false alarm - a trial in which the subject indicates perceiving the signal, even though the signal was not presented

A correct negative - a trial in which the subject correctly identifies that no signal was present

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27
Q

Our ability to detect a stimulus can change over time through repeated stimulation, if we start to block it out of our notice this is due to?

A

Sensory Adaption

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28
Q

Most of the exposed portion of the eye is covered by a thick structural layer known as…

A

The sclera

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29
Q

What is the colored part of the eye?

A

The iris

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30
Q

What is the white part of the eye?

A

The sclera

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31
Q

What covers the frontmost portion of the eye?

A

The cornea

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32
Q

The eye is supplied from nutrients by what 2 sets of blood vessels?

A

The choroidal vessels - a complex intermingling of blood vessels between the sclera and retina

Also the retinal vessels

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33
Q

What is the innermost layer of the eye?

A

The retina

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34
Q

What does the Retina contain?

A

Photoreceptors that transduce light into electrical information the brain can process

Photons of light to electrical signals

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35
Q

Cornea function

A

Gathers and focuses the light

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36
Q

What are the 2 chambers and there locations in the eye?

A

Anterior chamber - lies in front of the iris

Posterior chamber - between the iris and lens

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37
Q

The iris is composed of what 2 muscles?

A

Dilator pupillae - opens the pupil under sympathetic stimulation

Constrictor pupillae - constricts the pupil under parasympathetic stimulation

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38
Q

What 2 things is the iris continuous with?

A

The choroid, and the ciliary body

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39
Q

What is the choroid and it’s function?

A

It is a vascular layer of connective tissue that surrounds and provides nourishment to the retina

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40
Q

What is the ciliary body function?

A

Produce the aqueous humor that bathes the front part of the eye

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41
Q

Where does the aqueous humor drain into?

A

The canal of schlemm

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42
Q

Where is the lens and what is its function?

A

The lens is right behind the iris and helps control the refraction of the incoming light

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43
Q

What muscle is a component of the ciliary body, and what does it do?

A

The ciliary muscle, it is under parasympathetic control, when contracted, it pulls on the suspensory ligaments and changes the shape of the lens to focus on a image as the distance varies

A phenomenon called accommodation

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44
Q

What type of humor lies behind the lens?

A

The vitreous humor, a transparent gel that supports the retina

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45
Q

What is the retina considered a part of?

A

The CNS, as it’s a developed outgrowth of brain tissue

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46
Q

What is the duplicity or duplicity theory of vision?

A

It states that the retina contains 2 types of photoreceptors

-those specialized for light and dark detection

-those specialized for color detection

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47
Q

The retina is made up of approximately how many cones and rods?

A

6 million cones and 120 million rods

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48
Q

What are cones used for?

A

Color vision and to sense fine details, most effective in bright light

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49
Q

What forms do cones come in?

A

Cones come in 3 forms which are named for the wavelengths of light they best absorb

-Short (blue) wave
-Medium (green) wave
-Long (red) wave

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50
Q

When are rods most functional?

A

In reduced light because they are highly sensitive to photons

Only allow sensation of light and dark

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51
Q

All rods contain only a single pigment called

A

Rhodopsin

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52
Q

Why are rods less useful for detection of fine details?

A

Because rods are spread over a much larger area of the retina

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53
Q

What is the central location of the retina called?

A

The Macula

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54
Q

What does the macula contain?

A

A high concentration of cones

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55
Q

What is the center most region of the macula called? And what does it contain?

A

The Fovea, contains only cones

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56
Q

The further away you move from the fovea the more concentration of what?

A

Rods, and less of cones

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57
Q

Visual acuity is best at…

A

The Fovea

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58
Q

What leaves the eye?

A

The optic nerve

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59
Q

Region of the retina which is devoid of photoreceptors?

A

The optic disk, gives rise to a blind spot

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60
Q

Rods and cones do not connect directly to the optic nerve, instead what do they connect to? Describe them

A

Layers of neurons in between

First they synapse directly to bipolar cells, which highlight gradients between adjacent rods and cones

Then bipolar cells synapse with ganglion cells, axons of which group together to form the optic nerve

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61
Q

Bipolar and ganglion cells are located in front of rods and cones too, what does this mean?

A

That a photon must actually navigate past several layers of cells to reach the rods and cones at the back of the retina

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62
Q

As the number of receptors that converge through the bipolar neurons onto one ganglion cell increases, the resolution…

A

Decreases

multiple input signals are combined, resulting in a lower level of detail or resolution.

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63
Q

What do amacrine and horizontal cells do?

A

help enhance the contrast and highlight subtle variations in visual information by collecting input from multiple retinal cells within a specific region. This allows them to refine the signals before passing them on to ganglion cells, ultimately aiding in the perception of finer details and contrasts in the visual scene.

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64
Q

If an object is to your left than the photons from that object stimulate what side in each eye?

A

The right side of retina in each eye

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65
Q

An object in the nasal field of the right eye stimulates what fibers in the right eye?

A

The temporal retinal fibers

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66
Q

An object in the temporal field of the left eye would stimulate what fibers if the left eye?

A

The nasal retinal fibers

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67
Q

As the retinal fibers from each eye travel from the optic nerves what happens at the optic chiasm?

A

The nasal retinal fibers from the left and right eyes cross paths (only the nasal fibers)

68
Q

Why do the temporal retinal fibers not need to cross?

A

Because they are already the fibers stimulated on the opposite side of your body from the object

69
Q

After leaving the optic chiasm the reorganized pathways are called…

A

Optic Tracts

70
Q

From the optic chiasm some nerve fibers go through where in the thalamus? After of which how do they get to the visual cortex?

A

Some nerve fibers pass through the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) in the thalamus where they synapse with nerves that pass through radiation’s in the temporal and parietal lobes to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe

71
Q

Other fibers from the optic chiasm branch from the optic tract, skip the thalamus and head directly where?

A

The superior colliculus in the midbrain

(For reflexes)

72
Q

What is visual parallel processing

A

The brains ability to analyze information regarding color, form, motion, and depth simultaneously

73
Q

What does form refer to?

A

Not only the shape of an object, but also our ability to discriminate an object of interest from the background by detecting its boundaries

74
Q

Neurons carrying information from the fovea and surrounding central portion of the retina synapse with what cells?

A

Parvocellular cells in the Lateral Geniculate nucleus

75
Q

What are the attributes of Parvocellular cells?

A

They have very high color spatial resolution; permit us to detect very fine details when thoroughly examining an object

However these cells can only work with stationary or slow moving objects due to very low temporal resolution

76
Q

What are magnocellular cells well suited for detecting?

A

Motion, due to very high temporal resolution

But have low spatial resolution therefore they provide a blurry but moving image of an object

77
Q

Where in our vision does magnocellular cells predominately receive inputs from?

A

Periphery of our vision

78
Q

What is depth perception?
What does it heavily rely on?

A

Our ability to discriminate the 3-d shape of our environment and judge the distance of objects within

Heavily dependent on discrepancies between the inputs the brain receives from both eyes

79
Q

What specialized cells in the visual cortex are responsible for comparing the inputs to each hemisphere and detecting the differences?

A

Binocular neurons

80
Q

What do feature detectors help with?

A

Help out brain learn to associate patterns of stimuli with expected behaviors or outcomes

Each feature detector cell type detects a very particular, individual feature of an object in the visual field

81
Q

What is our vestibular sense?

A

Our ability to both detect rotational and linear acceleration and to use this information to inform our sense of balance and spatial orientation

82
Q

Where does a sound wave first reach?

A

The cartilaginous outside part of the ear called the pinna or auricle

83
Q

What is the auricles function?

A

To funnel sound waves into the external auditory canal

84
Q

External auditory canal function

A

Directs sound waves to the tympanic membrane

85
Q

What happens when the sound waves reach the tympanic membrane

A

The tympanic membrane vibrates in phase with the incoming sound waves

86
Q

What divides the outer ear from the middle ear?

A

The tympanic membrane

87
Q

The middle ear houses what bones?

A

The ossicles which are the smallest 3 bones in the body

88
Q

Ossicles function

A

Help transmit and amplify the vibrations from the tympanic membrane to the inner ear

89
Q

What is the order of ossicles following the tympanic membrane?

A

Malleus, incus, then stapes

90
Q

What does the baseplate of the stapes rest on?

A

The oval window of the cochlea, which is the entrance to the inner ear

91
Q

How is the middle ear connected to the nasal cavity?

A

Via the Eustachian tube

92
Q

Eustachian tube function

A

Helps to equalize pressure between the middle ear and the environment

93
Q

What does the inner ear sit within?

A

A bony labyrinth which is a hollow region of the temporal bone containing the cochlea, vestibule, and semicircular canals

94
Q

Inside the bony labryinth rests a continuous collection of tubes and chambers called…

A

The membranous labyrinth

95
Q

The membranous, and bony labyrinth is filled with what?

A

Membranous labyrinth is filled with potassium rich fluid called endolymph; it’s suspended within the bony labyrinth by a thin layer of fluid called perilymph

96
Q

What contains the receptors for hearing? What parts does it have?

A

The cochlea, it’s divided into 3 parts called scalae

97
Q

What does the middle scala house?

A

The actual hearing apparatus called the Organ of Corti

98
Q

What does the organ of corti rest on?

A

A thin, flexible membrane called the basilar membrane

99
Q

Organ of corti contains thousands of what cells?

A

Hair cells that are bathed in endolymph

100
Q

What is on top of the organ of corti?

A

A relatively immobile membrane called the tectorial membrane

101
Q

What are the other 2 scalae composition and location?

A

The other 2 are filled with perilymph, surround the hearing apparatus, and are continuous with oval window and round window

102
Q

When sound enters the cochlea through the oval window what does it cause transmitions to and vibrations in?

A

Causes vibrations in perilymph, which are transmitted to the basilar membrane

103
Q

What is the round window?

A

A membrane covered hole in the cochlea

104
Q

Because fluids are essentially incompressible, the round window permits the perilymph to do what?

A

Actually move within the cochlea

105
Q

What does the hair cells of the organ of corti do?

A

Transduce the physical stimulus into electrical signals which is carried to the central nervous system by the auditory nerve (vestibulocochlear nerve)

106
Q

Where and What does the vestibule contain? What is its function?

A

Located in the bony labyrinth it contains the utricle and saccule, which are sensitive to linear acceleration, and used as part of the balancing apparatus, determine one’s orientation in 3-D space

107
Q

Utricle and saccule contain modified hair cells covered with…

A

Otoliths

108
Q

As the body accelerates what does the otoliths do?

A

Resist the motion, this bends and stimulates the underlying hair cells sending signals to brain

109
Q

What does the cochlea detect?

A

Sound

110
Q

The utricle and saccule detect?

A

Linear acceleration

111
Q

The semicircular canals detect?

A

Rotational acceleration

112
Q

What is the auditory pathway? (Full pathway)

A

Cochlea to vestibulocochlear nerve to medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of thalamus to auditory cortex

113
Q

What is the visual pathway? (Full pathway)

A

Retina to optic nerve to optic chiasm to optic tracts to lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of thalamus to visual radiations to visual cortex

114
Q

The semicircular canals each end in a swelling called

A

An ampulla

Where the hair cells are located

115
Q

In the semicircular canals how are signals sent to brain when the head rotates?

A

When the head rotates. Endolymph in the semicircular canals resist this motion, bends underlying hair cells, sending signals to brain

116
Q

Where does most electrical stimuli from sound go to through the vestibulocochlear nerve?

A

The brainstem, where it ascends to the medial geniculate nucleus of the thalamus

117
Q

From the medial geniculate nucleus where can some info be sent? (For sound)

A

To the superior olive, which localized sound

Also the inferior colliculus, involved in the startle reflex

118
Q

What are stereocilia?

A

The long tufts on top of the hair cells surface, play a crucial role in the process of hearing by converting sound vibrations into electrical signals that the brain can interpret

119
Q

As vibrations reach the basilar membrane what happens to the stereocilia?

A

The stereocilia begin to sway, swaying causes the opening of ion channels, causing receptor potential

120
Q

Certain hair cells are directly connected to tectorial membrane, what are they involved in?

A

The amplifying of incoming sound

121
Q

What is place theory?

A

The location of a hair cell on the basilar membrane determines the perception of pitch when the hair cell is vibrated

122
Q

Where would high frequency and low frequency vibrations occur?

A

High frequency vibrations would occur at the basilar membrane very close to oval window

Low frequency vibrations would occur at apex, away from oval window

123
Q

The cochlea is tonotopically organized, what does this mean?

A

Means that which hair cells are vibrating gives the brain an indication of the pitch of sound

124
Q

What is the only sense that does not pass through the thalamus?

A

Smell

125
Q

Where are olfactory chemoreceptors located?

A

In the olfactory epithelium (upper part of nasal cavity)

126
Q

What are pheromones

A

Chemicals secreted by one animal, once bonded with chemoreceptors, compel or urge another animal to behave a certain way

Have debatable effects on humans

127
Q

Olfactory pathway

A

Odor molecules inhaled into nasal passages — contact the olfactory nerves in the olfactory epithelium — receptors cells are activated, sending signals to olfactory bulb — signals relayed via the olfactory tract to higher regions of brain, including limbic system

128
Q

Taste is detected by what receptors?

A

Chemoreceptors

129
Q

What are the 5 basic tastes

A

Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami (savory)

130
Q

What is flavor?

A

The complex interplay between smell and taste, can be affected by nonchemical stimuli like texture and the individuals mood

131
Q

Saltiness is a reaction to…

A

Alkali metals, generally triggered by the sodium found in table salt

132
Q

Sourness is a reaction to…

A

Acid

133
Q

Receptors for taste are groups of cells called what? Where are they located

A

Taste buds, located in little bumps on the tongue called papillae

134
Q

Gustatory pathway

A

Taste buds — brainstem — ascends to the taste center in the thalamus — higher order brain regions

135
Q

Somatosensation is often reduced to touch, but has what 4 modalities?

A

Pressure, vibration, temperature, pain

136
Q

Pacinian corpuscles respond to

A

Deep pressure and vibration

137
Q

Meisner’s corpuscles respond to

A

Light touch

138
Q

Merkel cells (discs) respond to

A

Deep pressure and texture

139
Q

Ruffini endings respond to

A

Stretch

140
Q

Free nerve endings respond to

A

Pain and temperature

141
Q

For somatosensation where does the signals from receptors go?

A

It eventually gets to the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe

142
Q

What is a two-point threshold?

A

The minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli, below threshold = felt as same stimuli

143
Q

What does the size of two point thresholds depend on?

A

The density of nerves in the particular area of skin being tested

144
Q

Temperature is judged relative to physiological zero; what is physiological zero?

A

Normal temperature of skin (86•-97•)

Objects feel warmer above, colder below physiological zero

145
Q

What is the gate theory of pain?

A

It proposed that there is a special “gating” mechanism to turning pain signals on or off, affecting whether or not we perceive pain; signals can either be processed to accentuate the perceived pain or attenuate it at the spinal cord itself

146
Q

What is smell, and taste sensitive to

A

Smell is sensitive to volatile or aerosolized compounds while taste is sensitive to dissolved compounds

147
Q

Kinesthetic sense is also called

A

Proprioception

148
Q

What is proprioception/kinesthetic sense?

A

Ability to tell where one’s body is in space

149
Q

What are the receptors for proprioception and where are they mostly found?

A

Proprioceptors, mostly found in muscle, and joints

150
Q

What is bottom-up processing?

A

Object recognition by parallel processing and feature detection

Brain takes the individual sensory stimuli and combines them together to create a cohesive image before determining what the object is

-Takes longer but less prone to mistakes

151
Q

What is top-down processing?

A

Driven by memories and expectations that allow the brain to recognize the whole object without analyzing little details to put together

-Faster but more prone to mistakes

152
Q

When is deja vu evoked?

A

When we have recognition without an obvious reason

153
Q

What is perceptual organization?

A

The ability to create a complete picture or idea by combining top-down and bottom-up processing with all of the other sensory clues gathered from an object

154
Q

What is relative size?

A

Idea that objects appear larger the closer they are

155
Q

What is interposition?

A

When 2 objects overlap, the one in front is closer

156
Q

What is linear perspective?

A

The convergence of parallel lines at a distance; the greater the convergence, the further the distance

157
Q

What is motion parallax?

A

The perception that objects closer to us seem to move faster when we change our field of vision (look at something else)

158
Q

What is convergence referring to a secondary binocular cue?

A

The brain detecting the angle between the 2 eyes required to bring and object into focus

Difference in the degree of convergence is used to perceive distance

159
Q

What is constancy referring to vision?

A

Our ability to perceive that certain characteristics of objects remain the same, despite changes in the environment

160
Q

What are Gestalt principles?

A

A set of general rules that account for the fact that the brain tends to view incomplete stimuli in organized, patterned ways

161
Q

What is the law of proximity?

A

Elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit

162
Q

What is the law of similarity?

A

Objects that are similar tend to be grouped together

163
Q

What is the law of good continuation?

A

Elements that appear to follow in the same pathway tend to be grouped together

164
Q

What is subjective contours?

A

The way we perceive contours, therefore, shapes that are not actually present in the stimulus

165
Q

What is the law of closure?

A

When a space is enclosed by a contour, the space tends to be perceived as a complete figure

166
Q

The gestalt principles are governed by?

A

The law of Pragnanz

167
Q

What does the law of pragnanz say?

A

That perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple, and symmetrical as possible

MCAT Behavioral Sciences (3 decks)

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