Carbon Flashcards
1
Q
Define the carbon cycle.
A
Cycle by which carbon moves from one sphere to another. Closed system made up of inter-linked sub-systems that are open (inputs + outputs).
2
Q
What are the 4 spheres of carbon?
A
Atmosphere
Hydrosphere
Lithosphere
Biosphere
3
Q
Define carbon sequestration.
A
Process by which CO2 is removed from atmosphere and held in solid or liquid form.
4
Q
Define outgassing.
A
Release of gas previously dissolved, trapped, frozen or absorbed in some material e.g. rock.
5
Q
Define chemical weathering.
A
The decomposition of rock minerals in their original structure by agents such as water, oxygen, carbon dioxide and organic acids.
6
Q
Describe how sedimentary carbonate rocks are formed.
A
Biomass (shells, skeletons etc.) collect at bottom of ocean. Calcium carbonate compacted weight of new layers above biomass. Over time - organic limestone rock formed.
7
Q
Name an example of a significant outgassing event.
A
Mount E-15 eruption (2010). Around 300,000 tonnes CO2 released per day (similar to Portugal). But - <0.3% global greenhouse gas emissions in 2010.
8
Q
Explain the process of chemical weathering of limestone rocks.
A
Weak carbonic acid forms in rain as it falls (absorbs CO2 in atmosphere). Dissolves calcium carbonate in rocks (especially limestone rocks).
9
Q
What are carbon pumps?
A
Processes operating in the oceans that circulate and store carbon.
10
Q
What are the 3 carbon pumps in the oceans?
A
Biological
Physical
Carbonate
11
Q
Describe the biological carbon pump.
A
Zooplankton - e.g. phytoplankton - at oceans’ surface photosynthesise (sequester dissolved CO2). Create calcium carbonate for their shells. When they die, carbon-rich micro-organisms sink to ocean floor to form sediment.
12
Q
Describe the physical carbon pump.
A
Thermohaline circulation describes large-scale movement of seawater due to temperature and salinity differences (e.g warm water to poles). Transfers dissolved CO2 from equatorial sources to polar sinks. Up-welling and down-welling (dense, cold water sinks) brings CO2 to deep ocean.
13
Q
Describe the carbonate carbon pump.
A
Oceanic organisms sequester CO2 from ocean, allowing it to absorb more from atmosphere. Carbon -> ocean -> organism -> seabed -> sedimentary rocks.
14
Q
Briefly describe an example of an influential thermohaline circulation.
A
Warm area of Atlantic between Brazil and West Africa transfers to Nordic Sea between Iceland and Norway (provides heat to Europe).
15
Q
Explain the patterns of CO2 concentration in the northern hemisphere’s atmosphere due to terrestrial primary producer (land-based plants) activity.
A
Spring and Summer - growing season: lower atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Winter - concentrations increase because plants are dormant. Plants sequester CO2 when growing through photosynthesis.
16
Q
Which biome has one third of all global primary production (plant photosynthesis)?
A
Tropical rainforests
17
Q
What is the word equation for respiration?
A
Glucose + oxygen –> carbon dioxide + water (+energy)
18
Q
Why are herbivores still considered primary consumers?
A
Consume plants and release methane gas as a by-product.
19
Q
What is humus and explain its role in the carbon cycle.
A
Type of dark soil that contains decayed plant and animal material. Rich in nutrients and contains moisture. Essential part of carbon cycle - large carbon sink (stable carbon storage) and contributes to soil fertility (increases plant growth and productivity).
20
Q
Explain carbon transfers when plant litter decomposes.
A
Some CO2 emitted to atmosphere. When decomposition is anaerobic - some methane emitted to atmosphere. Some carbon transferred to humus.
21
Q
Which biome stores the most carbon in vegetation? How much in gigatonnes (Pg)?
A
Tropical forests - 212 Pg
22
Q
Which biome stores the most carbon in soil? How much in gigatonnes (Pg)?
A
Boreal forests - >500 Pg
23
Q
What are boreal forests?
A
Dominated by needle-leaved, evergreen, deciduous hardwood trees. Extended, cold winters and short mild summers.
24
Q
What are the three major biochemical greenhouse gases?
A
Carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide.
25
Define the greenhouse effect.
The warming of the atmosphere as gasses such as CO2, CH4 and water vapour trap heat energy radiated from the Earth.
26
Explain the natural greenhouse gas effect.
Short wavelength solar radiation from sun enters Earth's atmosphere. Some heat absorbed, some reflected back towards space as longer-wavelength energy. Some energy cannot pass through relatively dense greenhouse gases - heat is trapped. Some escapes back into space.
27
How much cooler would the average temperature of the Earth be without the greenhouse effect?
21°C
28
Explain the enhanced greenhouse gas effect.
Same process but less energy escapes into space. More energy is trapped/absorbed by higher concentrations of dense greenhouse gasses. Earth gets warmer.
29
Explain role of CO2 in the greenhouse effect (% of greenhouse gases produced, sources and warming power).
89%. Fossil fuel burning and deforestation. Relatively low warming power.
30
Explain role of CH4 in the greenhouse effect (% of greenhouse gases produced, sources and warming power).
7%. Gas pipeline leaks, cattle farming. 21x more powerful than CO2.
31
Explain role of N2O in the greenhouse effect (% of greenhouse gases produced, sources and warming power).
3%. Jet engines, fertilisers, 250x powerful than CO2.
32
Explain role of halocarbons in the greenhouse effect (% of greenhouse gases produced, sources and warming power).
1%. Industry, cooling equipment, 3000x more powerful.
33
Name three global controls of climate.
Latitude, global atmospheric circulation, ocean currents.
34
How does latitude impact climate? Don't mention atmospheric ciculation.
Larger distribution of solar energy at poles + greater distance from sun = cooler.
35
Name the circulation cells from the equator to the poles, include degrees of latitude.
Equator to 30° - Hadley
30° to 60° - Ferrel
60° to poles - Polar
36
Which cells are the most well-defined / regular patterns of air movement?
Hadley cells (Polar are least regular).
37
What is another name for a low-pressure system and what conditions are found here?
A depression.
Air is rising.
Causes condensation and frontal rainfall.
38
What is another name for a high-pressure system and what conditions are found here?
Anti-cyclone.
Air is sinking.
Dry, settled conditions with light winds.
39
Describe the movement of water and temperature in the North Atlantic Ocean in normal conditions.
North Equatorial Current - warm water from Northeast Africa to Mexico.
Gulf Stream - warm water Mexico/Florida to East Canada
North Atlantic Drift - warm water from East Canada/US across Atlantic to UK.
Canary Current - cold water from UK South to Northeast Africa.
40
What are two factors locally effecting climate?
Albedo
Altitude
41
Explain the albedo's effect on climate.
High albedo - light colours. High % of heat energy reflected. Less ground heat - cooler climate.
Low albedo - dark colours. Low % of heat energy reflected. More ground heat - hotter climate.
42
Explain, using data, altitude's effect on climate.
Temperature drops by 0.01°C every 1m above sea level.
43
Define fossil fuels.
Material fuel such as coal or gas, formed in the geological past formed from the remains of living organisms.
44
How are fossil fuels consumed?
Extracted from lithosphere (70-100 million year old rocks) for oil and gas. Burned to release energy (and CO2).
45
Explain the predicted impact of a 2°C temperature increase on the climate.
Precipitation increases at higher latitudes, decreases at lower latitudes (Europe, America & Asia wetter).
More tropical storms in temperate and tropical areas.
46
Explain the predicted impact of a 2°C temperature increase on ecosystems.
Habitat changes - extinction rates could rise to 40% of all species.
Rising temp + ocean acidification = 80% coral reef bleaching.
47
Explain the predicted impact of a 2°C temperature increase on the hydrological cycle.
Ice sheets melting - freshwater in oceans: density & convection currents change.
Subtropical high-pressure zones shift towards poles - more drought in Mediterranean areas.
48
What is arctic amplification and why does it occur?
Positive feedback loop where the Arctic warms twice as fast as the global average. Melting permafrost releases CO2 & CH4 - increased global temp - more melting. Reduced albedo and ocean circulation changes contribute to amplification.
49
Define energy security.
The uninterrupted process of securing the amount of energy that is needed to sustain people’s lives and daily activities while ensuring its affordability.
50
What is the difference between primary and secondary energy?
Primary - natural energy resources not yet converted into another form of energy.
Secondary - form of energy created from a primary resource.
51
Where is energy consumption increasing and decreasing the most?
Emerging - China: +150% from 2000-2014
Developed - UK: -25% 2000-2014.
52
Identify 6 factors impacting the energy mix of a country.
Domestic availability
Financial cost
Consumption patterns
Real/perceived energy requirements of a country
Policy
Geopolitical links
53
Compare UK and Norway's physical availability of energy.
UK - Coal in North England until 1970s. Oil and gas in North Sea (70s onwards).
Norway - HEP (mountains, valleys etc.) Oil & gas in North Sea. Coal in Svalbard.
54
Compare the cost of energy in the UK and Norway.
UK - North Sea oil expensive to extract compared to imported OPEC oil.
Norway - HEP costs low once capital investment is complete. Transfer of secondary energy to remote areas can be expensive.
55
Compare energy technology in UK and Norway.
UK - old coal tech. Previous global leader in nuclear energy tech. Do have tech for clean coal (carbon capture) but not politically supported.
Both - tech for drilling allowed North Sea extractions
Norway - HEP tech
56
Compare impact of politics and economics on energy in UK and Norway.
UK - reliance on imports is political. Public concern over fracking and nuclear proposals. Privatisation of energy in 1980s - overseas companies decide which energy sources supply UK.
Norway - interventionist approach: no private companies own primary energy sites. Royalties and taxes from energy go towards living standards and building to fully renewable future.
57
Compare the GDP and energy use per capital of UK and Norway.
UK: US$45,000 and 2500kg oil equivalent
Norway: US$90,000 and 6000 kg oil equivalent.
58
Compare CO2 emissions in UK and Norway.
UK: 5 tonnes per capita
Norway: 7 tonnes per capita
59
Compare environmental policies in UK and Norway.
UK - Paris Agreement committed to 40% reduction of domestic greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 (compared to 1990). Investing in renewables (wind and nuclear).
Norway - Paris Agreement also. 'Policy for change' domestic target of carbon neutral by 2050. 3rd highest hydrocarbon exporter.
60
What is an energy pathway?
Describes the flow of energy between a producer and a consumer and how it reaches the consumer (e.g. pipeline, ship, rail).
61
What is the role of TNCs in energy?
Provide investment for exploration and extraction of resources e.g. British Petroleum (BP).
62
Name 3 of OPEC's 14 members.
Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, UAE.
63
Briefly describe a case study of OPEC's influence on energy markets.
OPEC implemented oil embargos on several Western countries (USA) in response to their support for Israel during Yom Kippur War. Significant increase in global oil prices and global economic recession. $3 to $12 per barrel and $35 by 1980.
64
Which two ways do consumers influence energy?
Demand that they create.
Voicing environmental concerns.
65
Case study for consumer influence on energy?
Greenpeace advert on LEGO's partnership with Shell - fossil fuel extraction in Arctic. 1 million + emailed to help end partnership due to worries of greenhouse has emissions and oil leaks.
66
Top 3 producers of oil?
Russia, Saudi Arabia, USA.
67
Top 3 consumers of oil?
China, USA, Japan.
68
Top 3 producers coal?
China, USA, India.
69
Top 3 consumers coal?
China, USA, Japan.
70
How do we transport energy?
Pipeline. Ship. Rail. Underwater cables.
71
Describe a physical case study for the interruption of energy pathways.
Trans-Alaskan pipeline for oil across Alaska to shipping ports and Canada. Vulnerable to earthquakes, landslides, thawing permafrost (destabilise structures). Initial building also difficult due to terrain - tundra. Faults anywhere cause stoppages for days.
72
Describe a human case study for interruption of energy pathways.
Suez Canal (Egypt) allows short-cut from Asia to Europe by sea. Large ship stuck and blocked canal for 6 days March 2021. Cost of prevented trade: US$9.6 billion - largely exports of oil & gas from Middle Eastern countries to the West. Also vulnerable in general (choke point) to maintenance issues, terrorism and political instability.
73
How does the Russian invasion of Ukraine impact energy pathways?
Using Russian gas unreliable and unethical. Sanctions - largely reduced imports to Europe (especially Germany). Reduced in Yamal-Europe and Nord Stream pipelines. Will phase out in next few years and Russia will no longer be an energy superpower. This also has global impacts (increased OPEC dependence).
74
What are the 4 typical unconventional fossil fuels?
Deep water oil
Tar sands
Shale oil & shale gas (fracking)
75
Main case study for unconventional fossil fuels?
Brazil deep water oil 2010 (helped by China).
76
Where was the deep water oil in Brazil?
250km off the south-east coast, 2000m deep.
77
How many barrels per day did the Brazil 2010 deep sea oil project produce around 2016?
3.5 million barrels per day.
78
Benefits of Brazil deep water oil.
Diversify energy mix (energy security). Jobs. Income from exports and foreign oil TNC investment. Production costs are falling whilst profits are rising.
79
Risks of Brazil deep water oil.
Initially high costs due to specialised equipment (e.g. ships for offloading). Company debt. Political corruption. Risk of spoiling environment at Guanabara Bay. Oil spills. Worker safety. Not renewable.
80
What are tar sands made of and how are they exploited to get energy?
Clay, sand, water, bitumen. Too thick to pump out ground - strip mine. Complex chemical procedure to separate bitumen.
81
List drawbacks of tar sands.
Energy needed to separate bitumen. Landscape scarring (Canada). Chemicals form tailing ponds (heavily pollute environment + water supplies).
82
Describe how fracking extracts energy.
Shale oil - Bitumen (not enough heat + pressure to be natural oil) is heated to release oil from shale rock.
Shale gas - shale rock broken to release methane trapped
Water used to extract both.
83
Other than energy security, describe a benefit of fracking.
Carbon footprint of shale gas 1/2 that of coal, and less than that of natural gas.
84
Costs of nuclear energy.
Contaminate water with radiation. Natural hazards / risk of disaster. NIMBY. Initially expensive to set up.
85
Benefits of nuclear energy.
No CO2. Jobs (Hinkley point C 25000). Very efficient energy. Massive safety improvements since previous disasters.
86
Costs of solar energy.
Uses large amounts of land.Toxic chemicals + energy needed to produce photovoltaic cells. Climate dependent. Storage issues. Expensive.
87
Benefits of solar energy.
No CO2 (when producing energy). Can be profitable for individuals long-term (sell surplus energy). Can stimulate development in sunny developing countries.
88
Costs of wind energy.
Noisy and eyesore (NIMBY). Bird migration deaths. Expensive to build and maintain. Storage issues.
89
Benefits of wind energy.
No air pollution (environment + health). Jobs in construction. Saves money long term.
90
Outline Gobi Desert as a case study for solar energy.
Some of highest radiation levels in the world. Dry, clear skies, arid, sparsely populated, sandstorms (water needed for cleaning). Current projects: 2GW photovoltaic plant (Inner Mongolia, China) and 1GW Tengger Desert Solar Park, QingHai, China. Potential for more as sparsely populated and ideal location.
91
Outline Kent's offshore wind farms as a case study for Wind energy.
London Array and Thanet offshore wind farm: 600MW = 500,000 homes. Latest efficient technology. Uses strong winds on English Channel. Slight risk to marine ecosystems and bird life.
92
Outline Hinkley Point C as a case study for nuclear energy.
Expected output 3.2GW (7% UK energy). Cost: $32bn but private partnership between EDF & Chinese energy company. Strong safety standards.
93
Outline Brazil as a case study for biofuels.
World's largest producer of ethanol from sugar cane. Reduces greenhouse gas emissions by 90%. $50bn revenue per year though exports to USA and domestic markets for running cars (petrol + ethanol to run). Over 1 million direct jobs created. BUT: deforestation, water usage, food shortages (cash crops).
94
Name 4 radical technological solutions to help the energy/climate crisis.
Carbon capture and storage.
Hydrogen fuel cells.
Electric vehicles.
Nuclear fusion.
95
Describe the process of carbon capture and storage. How much does it reduce CO2 emissions by?
CO2 emissions collected at powerplants. Pumped into long-term storage in rocks. Reduces emissions by 75%.
96
Pros/cons of carbon capture and storage.
75% reduce emissions - air quality and less global warming. Old power stations can be adapted. Allows to keep energy mixes. Can leak. Unsure of long term consequences of storage in rocks. Finite fossil fuels.
97
Pros/cons of hydrogen fuel cells.
57% reduce emissions. No local emissions. 200-300 miles charge. Fast charging. Only emissions is water. Flammable hydrogen. Lack of refueling infrastructure. Expensive for individuals. Finite materials for batteries.
98
Pros/cons of electric vehicles.
70% reduce emissions. Government subsidies. No local emissions. Hybrid cards. Range anxiety. Lack of recharging infrastructure & long charging time. Electricity may come from non-renewable sources. Environmental problems with battery tech.
99
Pros/cons of nuclear fusion.
No greenhouse gases or emissions. No no toxic or nuclear waste. Can use common elements. Still in research phase and needs significant funding.
100
What are three major threats/impacts of anthropogenic climate change?
Deforestation, drought and land use change.
101
Outline the Amazon as a case study for drought.
Climate change = stronger el nino = more drought in Amazon. 2005, 10, 16 droughts. 05: 30% of forest, reduction in moisture and biomass. 10: 50% of forest affected. 16: most damaging yet. Overall: tree mortality, reduced CO2 uptake, risk of wildfires, reduced photosynthesis. Forms positive feedback loop as reduced rainforest = more climate change.
102
How much have average global temperatures risen by since pre-industrial levels?
1.1 degrees C.
3.0 degrees C by the end of the century at current rate
103
According to the IPCC, what % of all anthropogenic emissions has the ocean sequestered?
30%
104
Why does increased carbon emissions lead to the death of corals and other marine species?
CO2 dissolves into ocean. Carbonic acid. Dissolves calcium carbonate - mineral of limestone rocks, shells of sea creatures e.g. coral reefs.
105
Give another reason for coral bleaching.
Narrow temp range where it can live. Warming oceans - algae stops providing food
106
Case study for coral bleaching.
Great Barrier Reef (Australia): warmer oceans = warmer El Nino in 2016 and 17. Mass bleaching events. Over 50% coral cover lost in some areas. Impact on ecosystems and biodiversity and tourism.
107
Pakistan 2022 flooding case study - causes.
190% more rainfall from June to August (500% in some areas). Temp. increase in Arabian sea (monsoon). Warmer atmosphere = more moisture (monsoons). La Nina + jet stream meanders = ideal conditions. Most non-polar glaciers in the world and 3x higher glacial melt in 2022. Rivers across Pakistan burst banks.
108
Pakistan 2022 flooding case study - impacts.
>1700 deaths. 1 millions homes. Approx £9bn. 1/3 of Pakistan under water - 30 million people baldy effected.
109
What physical factors mean that climate change is unpredictable?
Carbon sinks are slow processes and take time to restore previous carbon levels.
110
What human factors mean that climate change is unpredictable?
Population change is variable and dependent on many factors.
Economic growth is unpredictable (Kuznet's curve).
Changing energy sources.
Records began relatively recently.
111
Why does climate change cause the drainage of peatlands?
Evaporation
Changing precipitation patterns
Drought
Saltwater intrusion due to sea level rise
112
What are the impacts of peatland drainage?
Greenhouse gas emissions
Biodiversity loss
Land degradation
Increased fire frequencies (more consequences)
Carbon loss via water
Responsible for 5% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions.
113
Describe water conservation and management as an adaption strategy to climate change including an example.
Israel: smart irrigation, reuse sewage for agriculture usage, stringent conservation laws and more expensive water to reflect true value. Effective and less water usage. Only tackles water problem + expensive infrastructure.
114
Describe solar radiation management as a potential adaption strategy to climate change.
Climate engineering - pump sulfur aerosols into atmosphere, cloud brightening or space-based reflectors. Reflect solar radiation to cool Earth. Quick to deploy and offset greenhouse effect. Uncertainty of effectiveness and impacts. Social, political controversy.
115
Describe flood risk management and land-use planning as an adaption strategy to climate change.
Rivers and coast. Hard and soft engineering. Relocation. Afforestation and wetlands to control discharge, mangroves at coast. Land-use zoning - low-risk uses on flood plains. High costs, can't move everyone and flooding is unpredictable.
116
Describe carbon taxation as a mitigation strategy to combat climate change.
UK carbon price floor. Kyoto protocol Paris 2015. More expensive fossil fuels. Tax for govt. spending and discourages fossil fuels (less profit). Tax free-zones are get arounds and more expensive for consumer.
117
South Korea as a case study for afforestation as a mitigation strategy to combat climate change.
(Canada UK and Sweden all afforesting significantly). South Korea post WW2 illegal logging and slash and burn culture. Since '60s forest rehabilitation schemes 11bn trees planted and 2/3 South Korea now forested.
