carbon Flashcards

Question

terrestrial ecosystems pentagrams

Answer 1

crustal/terrestrial/geological oceanic (deep)

Answer 2

terrestrial soil oceanic (surface) atmospheric terrestrial ecosystems

Answer 3

geological carbon biologicaly derived carbon

Answer 4

Carbon can be created through a number of chemical reactions in the rock cycle

Answer 5

Carbon can also be present in organic matter as a result of processes such as respiration. This can later be stored in shale, coal and other sedimentary rocks

Answer 6

when rocks such as sedimentary rocks are created e.g. limestone and chalk.

Answer 7

There tends to be a natural balance between the amount of carbon being released and the amount being absorbed. However, there can be occasional disruptions and short periods before this balance is restored, such as during a volcanic eruption.

Answer 8

This is a natural cycle that moves between land, oceans and the atmosphere. It involves a number of chemical reactions that create new stores which trap carbon for significant periods of time

Answer 9

One of earth’s largest stores of carbon is the Himalayas which started off as oceanic sediments rich in calcium- this is now being weathered and returned back to the oceans.

Answer 10

is created from dead organisms such as coal and shale. These organisms absorb carbon during respiration and photosynthesis. Once they die they (if they are in oceans) sink to the sea bed. They are then buried under sinking sediments and form layers called strata. Eventually, the strata are squeezed together as a result of the weight on top, and can create fossil fuels such as coal and oil.

Answer 11

Terrestrial carbon, held within the mantle, is released into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide (CO2) when volcanoes erupt

Answer 12

CO2 within the atmosphere combines with rainfall to produce a weak acid (acid rain) that dissolves carbon-rich rocks, releasing bicarbonates

Answer 13

Rivers transport weathered carbon and calcium sediments to oceans, where they are deposited. Carbon in organic matter from plants and from animal shells and skeletons sinks to the ocean bed when they die, building up strata of coal, chalk and limestone. Carbon-rich rocks are subducted along plate boundaries and eventually emerge again when volcanoes erupt. The presence of intense heating along subduction plate boundaries metamorphoses (alters) sedimentary rocks by baking, creating metamorphic rock. CO2 is released by the metamorphism of rocks rich in carbonates during this process.

Answer 14

volcanic outgassing metamorphism chemical weathering

Answer 15

in 2010, the Icelandic Eruption emitted between 150,000 and 300,000 tonnes of CO2 per day. It contributed less than 0.3% of global emissions that year.

Answer 16

sedimentary

Answer 17

One billion

Answer 18

A carbon source is shrinking in size and releasing emissions. Whereas a carbon sink is growing in size and storing more carbon.

Answer 19

the balance that exists between the sinks and sources.

Answer 20

If sources equal sinks

Answer 21

results in posotive or negative feedback

Answer 22

Earth systems normally operate by negative (stabilising) feedbacks, maintaining a stable state by preventing the system moving beyond certain thresholds. I.e. any change is cancelled out, maintaining equilibrium.

Answer 23

Positive (amplifying) feedback loops occur when a small change in one component causes changes in other components. This shifts the system away from its previous state and towards a new one.

Answer 24

Biological and chemical processes determine just how much of the carbon available on the Earth’s surface is stored or released at any one time. The role of living organisms are critical to the cycle and to controlling the balance between overall storage, release, transfer and absorption of carbon.

Answer 25

photosynthesis respiration decomposition combustion

Answer 26

a chemical process that happens in all cells and is common to both plants and animals glucose is converted into energy that can be used for growth and repair, movement and control of body temperature in mammals carbon dioxide is then returned to the atmosphere mostly by exhaled air

Answer 27

when organisms die they are consumed by decomposers such as bacteria, fungi and earthworms during this carbon from their bodies is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide some organic material passes into the soil where it may be stored for hundreds of years

Answer 28

organic material contains carbon when burned in the presence of oxygen it is converted into energy, carbon dioxide and water- combustion carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere returning carbon that may have been stored in rock for millions of years

Answer 29

the process where plants use the light energy from the sun to produce carbohydrates in the form of glucose green plants absorb light energy using chloropyll in their leaves absorbed light energy converts carbon dioxide in the air and water from the soil into glucose- during this oxygen is released into the air some glucose is used in respiration the rest is converted into starch which is insolublebut can be converted back into glucose for respiration

Answer 30

The ocean’s are one of the Earth’s largest store, being 50 times greater than the atmosphere.

Answer 31

in undersea algae, plants and coral, with the remainder dissolved in the water.

Answer 32

are processes operating within the oceans which circulate and store carbon.

Answer 33

the biological pump, the carbonate pump and the physical pump.

Answer 34

biological pump carbonate pump physical pump

Answer 35

this is the sequestration of C02 to oceans by phytoplankton. Phytoplankton float on the surface of the ocean to access sunlight and photosynthesise. They are autotrophs and are the base of the marine food web. Even though they are minute they make up over half the planets biomass. Carbon is then passed up the food chain by consumers which in turn release C02 back to the atmosphere. In this way most carbon is cycled in surface waters and only 0.1% reaches the sea floor through decompositions and sedimentation. Phytoplankton sequester over 2 billion metric tonnes of C02 annually to the deep ocean.

Answer 36

this relies on inorganic carbon sedimentation. Lots of marine organisms utilise calcium carbonate to make their outer shells/ skeletons. When these organisms die and sink to the sea floor many shells will dissolve on the way and the carbon will become part of the ocean and flow around the planet in currents. Shells that do not dissolve build up slowly on the sea floor forming limestone sediments such as those in the white cliffs of Dover.

Answer 37

This is the oceanic circulation of water including upwelling, down welling and the thermohaline current. C02 in the oceans is mixed much slower than in the atmosphere so there are large spatial differences in concentration. Colder water can absorb more C02 so C02 concentration is 10% higher in the deep ocean than the surface and polar regions store more than tropical regions. Warm waters release C02 into the atmosphere and cold waters absorb C02. Large ocean currents like the North Atlantic Drift move water from the tropics to the poles, the water cools and absorbs more C02.

Answer 38

between 150,000 and 300,000 tonnes of CO2 per day placing it in the same emissions league as small-medium European countries such as Portugal or Ireland

Answer 39

However it contributed less than 0.3% of global emissions of greenhouse gases in 2010.

Answer 40

organic sequestration by phytoplankton

Answer 41

based on the rise (upwelling) and fall (downwelling) of the circulation of water

Answer 42

Based on CaCO3 used in the shells of marine organisms

Answer 43

Phytoplankton float on the ocean’s surface to access sunlight and photosynthesise.

Answer 44

The absorb carbon, when eaten that carbon is passed along the food chain. Part of that carbon is released through respiration. Some carbon reaches the sea floor through decomposition and sedimentation. Threatened by warming oceans.

Answer 45

Thrive along coastlines and continental shelves. Found along the equator in the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. Thrive in high latitude areas.

Answer 46

Oceans rich in nutrients from deep water upwelling. In high latitudes blooms peak in spring and summer when sunlight increases. In subtropical oceans blooms decrease because surface waters warm up and become buoyant, with cold, dense water below the water not mixing easily, meaning nutrients are quickly used up.

Answer 47

terrestrial (land based) sequestration

Answer 48

tropical forests and savanah grasslands

Answer 49

Primary producers (plants) take in carbon through photosynthesis and then release CO2 back into the atmosphere through respiration. Consumer animals then eat these plants and absorb the carbon which becomes part of its fats and proteins. Initially after the animal has died, microorganisms and detritus feeders such as beetles feed on waste material which becomes part of these micro-organisms. After death, tissues decay into the soils. This process is affected by climate and decomposition will happen fastest in tropical climates (warm and damp) or, in Arctic biomes, the process can be ‘locked down’ for substantial time periods.

Answer 50

95% of a tree’s biomass (leaves, branches, trunk and roots) is made up from thee CO2 that it sequesters and converts into cellulose.

Answer 51

turns gaseous carbon into living organic compounds that grow.

Answer 52

20-30% sequestering about twice the quantity of carbon as the atmosphere and three times that of terrestrial vegetation. Whether the soil sequesters or emits C02 depends on local conditions.

Answer 53

climate soil type management and use of soils

Answer 54

This dictates plant growth and microbe activity. Rapid decomposition occurs at higher temperatures or under water logged conditions. Places with high rainfall have an increased potential carbon storage than the same soil type in lower rainfall places. Arid soils store only 30 tonnes per hectare compared with 800 tonnes per hectare in cold regions.

Answer 55

Clay-rich soils have a higher carbon content than sandy soils as clay protects carbon from decomposition.

Answer 56

Since 1850, soils globally have lost 40-90 billion gigatons of carbon through cultivation and disturbance. Current rates of carbon loss due to land-use change are 1.6 ± 0.8 billion gigatons of carbon per year.

Answer 57

reflected by clouds, aerosols and gases in the atmosphere and by the land surface.

Answer 58

absorbed, particularly by the oceans.

Answer 59

a large amount is re-radiated back to Earth by clouds and GHGs which traps the long wave radiation in our atmosphere.

Answer 60

gives us our life supporting average temperature of 15 degrees. Without this effect our average temperature would be -6.

Answer 61

The present geological time we are living in is called the Holocene period but many people refer to it now as the Anthropocene because of the profound changes caused by humans.

Answer 62

The natural greenhouse effect has become enhanced; C02 in the atmosphere has increased in volume by 40% in the last 300 years.

Answer 63

industry agriculture electricity generation transport cement production wetland/peatland loss

Answer 64

combustion of fossil fuels

Answer 65

c02 emmisions

Answer 66

livestock-methane deforestation- farm land loss of soil carbon from ploughing

Answer 67

increased demand due to rising population

Answer 68

The most consumed product in the world after water. Chemical processes involved in production release a substantial amount of carbon dioxide (6% of global carbon emissions).

Answer 69

The nature of wetlands is shaped by water and rainfall patterns – the unpredictable change due to climate change may result in wetlands drying out. Peatlands store 550Gt of carbon – twice as much as all of the world’s forest biomass combined but only cover 3% of the earth’s surface.

Answer 70

Through burning fossil fuels we have transferred considerable amounts of carbon from fossil stores, where exchanges are very slow, into the fast category, significantly disturbing the carbon cycle. CO2 levels in the atmosphere are higher than ever before. This process has continued since the Industrial Revolution (1760-1840) and accelerated through the oil age (20th century), changing the chemistry of the atmosphere.

Answer 71

Carbon dioxide and other GHGs naturally help to maintain the Earth’s temperature – and also determines the distribution of temperature and precipitation. If the concentrations of these change, it is likely to alter these distribution patterns.

Answer 72

The amount of solar energy (solar insolation) reaching the Earth’s surface varies at different locations which in turn influences temperature. The angle of the sun’s rays makes solar insolation intense at the equator but dispersed over a wider area at the poles. Different characteristics of the Earth’s surface (how light or dark it is) also affects how much heat is absorbed or reflected.

Answer 73

The heating of the atmosphere and surface controls the temperature, pressure, movement and moisture content of the air. Because solar radiation is most intense at the equator, low pressure systems dominate there, meaning rainfall all year round. Regional and seasonal variations also occur, because of the effects of relief, pressure patterns and wind systems.

Answer 74

1) short wave radiation passes through the atmosphere 2) some long wave radiation is reflected back into space 3) some short wave radiation is absorbed and is converted to long wave (heat) radiation

Answer 75

The IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel for Climate Change) has been collecting evidence of natural changes of heat sources such as volcanism, solar changes and orbital changes such as the Milankovitch cycle and none of these can account for recent changes.

Answer 76

compared with air bubbles found in ice cores up to 800,000 years ago

Answer 77

fossil fuels

Answer 78

fast carbon cycling Without it, the carbon in the fossil fuels would transfer slowly through volcanic activity.

Answer 79

40% With approximately 50% of those emissions still in our atmosphere today.

Answer 80

2000 years so c;limate change will continue

Answer 81

linked greenhouse gas concentrations, rising global temperatures and sea levels.

Answer 82

climate ecosystems hydrological cycle

Answer 83

2015 average world temperature 1 degrees C above that of pre-industrial era; 2011 -2015 were the five hottest years on record.

Answer 84

Marine biodiversity may be lost as fish move away from warming sea temperatures and about 80% of coral reefs could be bleached (e.g. Great Barrier Reef).

Answer 85

Permafrost areas will thaw and add more water to Arctic rivers.

Answer 86

The Sahel, Mediterranean, South Africa and South Asia will become drier, with drought more common in the tropics and subtropics – but some uncertainties remain due to other factors (El Nino).

Answer 87

Atlantic and Southern Ocean thermohaline circulation may weaken, altering the transfer of heat by oceans.

Answer 88

Uncertainty remains over increased river flooding, since multiple factors are involved, but more flash flooding is likely as a result of more intense precipitation.

Answer 89

By 2080 shifting temperatures may reduce bird habitats in North America, affecting 314 species, with ocean and coastal habitats affected the most, also partly because of coastal flooding and salt encroachment).

Answer 90

10% as climate gets warmer and wetter or drier Rates of extinction could rise to 15-40% of all species, especially in high polar regions.

Answer 91

cause a 20-30% decrease in water availability in Mediterranean climate zones.

Answer 92

Antarctic ice shelves will melt, adding more freshwater to the Southern Ocean, changing density and convection.

Answer 93

average Arctic temperature has already increased at twice the global average over the last 200 years. Snow and ice cover will contract with the ablation of glaciers.

Answer 94

Humidity levels in the atmosphere will increase, consistent with what warmer air can hold.

Answer 95

Precipitation will increase in higher latitudes and decrease in lower latitudes. Worldwide patterns will change, with wetter eastern parts of N/S America, northern Europe and northern/central Asia. Extreme heavy precipitation events will become common, with precipitation increases over northern-hemisphere land areas.

Answer 96

The number of cold days and nights will decrease, and warm ones will increase. There have been fewer extreme cold events over the last 50 years, but more extreme heat events.

Answer 97

Biodiversity will be affected as habitats shift poleward or into deeper ocean waters or higher altitudes. In north Brazil and central-southern Africa, lower rainfall and soil moisture, which causes changes to soil and oxygen will reduce biodiversity. Permafrost will thaw. Acidification of sea water (carbonic acid) will threaten corals and the shells of marine creatures will get smaller and thinner. Butterflies are a good example of the shift northwards of climate zones (6.1 km per decade).

Answer 98

Atlantic and Southern Ocean thermohaline circulation may weaken, altering the transfer of heat by oceans. Antarctic ice shelves will melt, adding more freshwater to the Southern Ocean, changing density and convection. Extratropical low-pressure system (depression) tracks will move northwards with climate pattern shift. Temperate and tropical zones may experience stronger storm activity because of more heat and moisture in the atmosphere.

Answer 99

Biodiversity will be affected as habitats shift poleward or into deeper ocean waters or higher altitudes. In north Brazil and central-southern Africa, lower rainfall and soil moisture, which causes changes to soil and oxygen will reduce biodiversity. Permafrost will thaw. By 2080 shifting temperatures may reduce bird habitats in North America, affecting 314 species, with ocean and coastal habitats affected the most, also partly because of coastal flooding and salt encroachment).

Answer 100

A shift of subtropical high-pressure areas northwards will cause a 20-30% decrease in water availability in Mediterranean climate zones. Small glaciers will disappear (e.g. in the Andes and Himalayas), decreasing river discharges once they have gone.

Answer 101

The energy mix of a country is the proportion of each primary energy resource it uses per year. These resources may be domestic or imported.

Answer 102

E.g. coal, oil and gas. Exploitation and use of these stocks will lead to their exhaustion.

Answer 103

E.g. solar, wind and wave power. These are continuous flows of nature and can be constantly re-used.

Answer 104

E.g. reprocessed uranium and plutonium from nuclear power plants and heat recovery systems

Answer 105

Availability of primary energy resources within the country as well as their access to technology to extract the resources. The accessibility of primary energy resources from outside the country. The energy needs of the country, based on economic development, lifestyle and climate. changing energy consumption patterns, linked to population and economic growth. National and regional policies that affect energy production and consumption e.g. climate change. Cultural and historical legacies and geopolitical links. Financial costs of each energy option.

Answer 106

US – consumerist lifestyle meaning higher demand. Plus hot/cold climate meaning air conditioning and heating required

Answer 107

Europe – Russia exports 80% of it’s natural gas to Europe.

Answer 108

Iceland – Domestic geothermal energy

Answer 109

UK – National policies to reduce emissions and invest in renewables

Answer 110

Countries with little capital e.g. India, consume the cheapest resources, which is currently fossil fuels

Answer 111

India – population of 1.2 billion meaning high demand

Answer 112

India – struck a deal with Canada for it to provide India with 3.2 million kilos of uranium.

Answer 113

primary secondary

Answer 114

natural energy resources that have not been converted into another form of energy e.g. coal, oil, gas. (Consumed in their raw form)

Answer 115

refers to what the primary source has been converted into, usually electricity.

Answer 116

less than 1% combined

Answer 117

Despite economic and population growth in the UK, the adoption of energy-saving technologies (e.g. home heating and vehicle engines) resulted in the UK consuming less energy in 2015 than in 1998 with more of that energy coming from renewables. However, the UK now imports more energy than it produces domestically (i.e. from it’s own reserves) due to a decline in the North Sea oil and gas reserves.

Answer 118

being able to access reliable and affordable energy sources – either domestic or from ‘friendly’, overseas countries

Answer 119

40% Countries such as Germany are particularly vulnerable (50% - shut down other resources)

Answer 120

Moldova and North Macedonia for example. Finland and Latvia rely on it for over 90% of their energy.

Answer 121

50% the other half mostly from Norway.

Answer 122

There are no gas pipelines directly linking the UK with Russia and imports from Russia made up less than 4% of total UK gas supply in 2021.

Answer 123

the aim of Europe to wean itself off Russian gas to make it less of a weapon during conflict.

Answer 124

fossil fuel exports, so it needs to consider the consequences of this, if it decides to threaten the removal of the supply to Europe.

Answer 125

The energy mix of a country is the proportion of each primary energy resource it uses per year.

Answer 126

A resource that is reused or reprocessed

Answer 127

natural energy resources that have not been converted into another form of energy/consumed in raw form

Answer 128

Energy extracted and used within the same country

Answer 129

non renewable renewable recyclable

Answer 130

energy pathways from producer to consumer

Answer 131

describes the flow of energy between the producer and consumer, and how it reaches the consumer, e.g. pipeline, transmission lines, ship, rail etc.

Answer 132

energy security-energy supply must meet demands energy equity- there must be accessible and affordable energy for all countries environmental sustainability

Answer 133

geopolitical tension e.g. Arab uprising in North Africa, Arab-Israeli war.

Answer 134

OPEC energy companies TNCs consumers governments

Answer 135

Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries.

Answer 136

12 member countries and between them they own around two-thirds of the world’s oil reserves.

Answer 137

is in a position to control the amount of oil and gas entering the global market, as well as the prices of both commodities. It has been accused of holding back production in order to drive up oil prices.

Answer 138

These are the companies that convert primary energy (oil, gas and oil) into electricity and then distribute it. Most companies are involved in the distribution of both gas and electricity. They have considerable influence when it comes to setting consumer prices and tariffs.

Answer 139

Gazprom, BP and Total.

Answer 140

Nearly half of the top 20 oil companies are state-owned, so therefore very much under government control. Most of these companies are involved in a range of operations, such as exploring, extracting, transporting, refining and producing petrochemicals.

Answer 141

They create the demand. The most influential consumers are transport, industry and domestic users. Purchasing choices are often based on price/cost issues e.g. petrol prices can be keenly competitive between supermarkets Consumers are largely passive players when it comes to fixing energy prices.

Answer 142

They can influence the sourcing of energy for geopolitical reasons. To meet international obligations, whilst securing energy supplies for the nation’s present and future, as well as supporting the countries economic growth. Regulating the role of private companies and setting environmental priorities.

Answer 143

84% (in 2019)

Answer 144

China’s rapid economic growth has largely driven in the increase of consumption, doubling it’s oil consumption between 2000-2010. This is expected to increase at twice the global average, which means that by 2035 China will be the world’s largest energy importer.

Answer 145

The issue is the mismatch between where fossil fuels are found and where the demand for them is greatest.

Answer 146

Coal, oil and natural gas all from under certain geological conditions which determines where they are found. Because of the disparity between production and areas of high demand, this is called a mismatch.

Answer 147

Natural gas is transported via pipelines because it’s efficient and increasingly international. These pathways depend on multilateral (between many countries) and bilateral (between two countries) agreements.

Answer 148

The Russian firm Gazprom exports 80% of their gas to Europe. For security reasons they try to avoid transporting the gas through other countries.

Answer 149

the nord stream

Answer 150

The Nord Stream pipeline runs 1200 km along the bed of the Baltic Sea to avoid other countries. take gas from the Russian coast near St Petersburg to Lubmin in Germany.

Answer 151

€10bn (£8.4bn) and was completed last September. The Russian state-owned energy giant Gazprom put up half of the cost and western energy firms such as Shell and ENGIE of France are paying the rest.

Answer 152

runs parallel to an existing gas pipeline, Nord Stream, which has been working since 2011.

Answer 153

these two pipelines could deliver 110bn cubic metres of gas to Europe every year. That is over a quarter of all the gas that European Union countries use annually.

Answer 154

50% travelling on fixed shipping routes, which include narrow sea channels or a convergence of transport routes (a choke point).

Answer 155

the Suez Canal It is just 205m wide but one million barrels of oil; 8% if liquified natural gas and 12% of global trade pass through every day!

Answer 156

If choke points are blocked or threatened, even temporarily, then energy prices can quickly rise

Answer 157

Due to energy transportation

Answer 158

Geopolitical factors – concerning ownership, use and control. Militant action (including piracy) – e.g. seized ships, bombed pipelines. Weather/natural hazards – damage to pipelines in storms or earthquakes. political tensions and disagreements – lead to choke points being blocked.

Answer 159

the ongoing Syrian conflict Russia and USA’s battle for control over Syria. Many argue the main reason for control is the proposed pipeline through Syria to fuel Europe. Russia is the second biggest supplier of oil and gas (after the US and Saudi Arabia) and wants a share in the European market - it is allies with Iran who want the same involvement in the market. Iran want to export its gas via pipelines through Syria so it defends the Syrian government from those trying to overthrow and replace their president Assad.

Answer 160

in December 2015, the International Marine Bureau reported piracy attacks along the Strait of Malacca, between Malaysia, Singapore and Indonesia (the world’s second largest chokepoint for oil and gas transit by tanker). Criminal gangs frequently seized ships for hostage payments – over 500 attacks occurred between 2009-2015. The Trans-Forcados, Efurtun-Otor and Escravos pipelines in Nigeria were bombed in 2016 by militants resulting in a loss of 300,000 barrels of crude oil a day.

Answer 161

During a stormy winter in 2013, UK gas reserves fell to 6 hours worth, as storm damage paralysed an import pipeline.

Answer 162

3 out of 4 of Russia’s pipelines cross Ukraine to get to Europe. Due to conflict between Russia and Ukraine, this could threaten the energy security of Europe. Ukraine could increase prices it charges for allowing the gas to be transferred across its country; or it could stop the flow altogether.

Answer 163

In March 2021 a huge container ship blocked the canal, preventing any traffic from passing through. A total of 450 ships were delayed, estimated to be $9.6bn of trade each day. Crude oil prices rose as a result due to fears supplies would be short!

Answer 164

when fossil fuels are obtained using new, unconventional methods.

Answer 165

tar sands deep water oil shale gas oil shale

Answer 166

also known as oil sands. These are naturally occurring mixtures of sand, clay, water and a dense viscous form of petroleum called bitumen. Canada has 73% of known global stocks.

Answer 167

tar sands have to be mined and then injected with steam to make the tar less viscous so that it can be pumped out.

Answer 168

Deposits of organic compounds called kerogen in sedimentary rocks that have not undergone sufficient pressure, heat or time to become conventional oil. The USA has 77% of known global reserves.

Answer 169

Either mined or shale is ignited so that the light oil fractions can be pumped out.

Answer 170

Usually methane in coal seams, or natural gas trapped in fractures and pores of sandstones and shales.

Answer 171

Fracking: pumping water and chemicals forces out the gas

Answer 172

As accessible reserves (e.g. North Sea oil) run out, prospecting companies have to look into deeper ocean waters with greater risks and costs, e.g. the Gulf of Mexico and Brazil’s off-shore reserves.

Answer 173

Drilling takes place from ocean rigs; already underway in the Gulf of Mexico and Brazil

Answer 174

has decreased, whilst unconventional fossil fuels has, and is predicted to continue to increase.

Answer 175

conventional oil at 8 million barrels per day

Answer 176

unconventional gas at 10 million barrels per day

Answer 177

when oil production will reach a global peak, before declining sharply. has been predicted for many years

Answer 178

As conventional fossil fuels (oil, gas and coal) reach an end, the search for other sources has intensified. Unconventional fossil fuels are becoming more viable, particularly as areas such as Canada and USA discover its reserves.

Answer 179

geopolitics can make access to resources difficult, or cause the prices of oil and gas to increase, making unconventional fuels like shale gas more economically viable.

Answer 180

has decreased

Answer 181

natural gas

Answer 182

coal from it’s peak in 2012 at approximately 130 terawatt hours, down to approximately 20 TWh in 2017.

Answer 183

Renewables has had the biggest increase in contributions to the UK energy mix, generating approximately 100 terawatt hours in 2017, compared to less than 10 TWh in 1996.

Answer 184

mindful of the need to become energy secure and to play its part in reducing global emissions.

Answer 185

nearly 80% with petrol being used by transport and most of the gas used to generate electricity.

Answer 186

Today we consume less energy than we did in 1970, despite the population increase of some 6.5 million – mainly due to a changing economy, moving away from industry.

Answer 187

The UK is now more efficient, both in producing energy and using it.

Answer 188

Household uses 12% less energy while industry uses 60% less – however this has been offset by transport as there’s been a big increase in vehicles and flights.

Answer 189

Increasing renewable energy – especially wind and solar Developing a new generation of nuclear power stations, e.g. Hinkley Point C. Reduce energy use through technologies such as LED light bulbs. Recycling energy which would normally be wasted.

Answer 190

seek alternative resources than fossil fuels

Answer 191

reprocessed energy

Answer 192

nuclear power heat recovery systems

Answer 193

continuous flows of nature and can be constantly re used

Answer 194

biomass HEP solar wave and tidal wind

Answer 195

work via a ventilation system which is positioned at the top of the building. Rather than just draw the stale air out and replace it with new stuff, it first of all works to draw the heat from the outgoing air and passes it to the air which is coming in.

Answer 196

Normally, air circulates around an office, becomes stale and is replaced by colder air that it is warmed up by the ventilation system. What happens to that already warm, stale air? It simply gets expelled into the atmosphere. Heat recovery systems don’t replace the need for a boiler or other technology to heat your radiators but it does help them work more efficiently by recycling that warm air ensuring that you get the most out of it.

Answer 197

derived immediagtely from living matter

Answer 198

agricultural crops forestry or fishery products various forms of waste

Answer 199

fuelwood, wood chips and pellets and other organic material used in the unprocessed form, primarily for heating, cooking or electricity generation.

Answer 200

derived from the processing of biomass and include liquid biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel which can be used by vehicles and in industrial processes.

Answer 201

There has been a recent surge with the commercial use of a number of new biofuels. These new, so-called ‘energy crops’ include wheat, maize, grasses, soy-beans and sugar cane. In the UK, the two main biofuels are oilseed rape and sugar beet

Answer 202

15.5 billion litres between 2013-2018

Answer 203

11.9 billion litres between 2013 and 2018

Answer 204

1.2 billion litres between 2013 and 2018

Answer 205

1.4 billion litres between 2013 and 2018

Answer 206

4.5 billion litres between 2013 and 2018

Answer 207

are new approaches using state of the art technology which aim to reduce carbon emissions in the near future.

Answer 208

hydrogen fuel cells electric cars carbon capture

Answer 209

Hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, but usually combined with other elements. Once separate it provides an alternative to oil. Using it in a hydrogen engine in a car produces no pollution, just water as a waste product, making it more efficient than petrol or diesel. Separating hydrogen from other elements requires energy, which could be provided from renewable sources.

Answer 210

Toyota developed a car with a range of 270 miles, which went on sale in California in 2015. Toyota developed a car with a range of 270 miles, which went on sale in California in 2015.

Answer 211

it’s not going to run out Produces no pollution – if renewables are used. Could reduce dependence on fossil fuels for transport

Answer 212

Requires a large amount of energy to separate elements. Water vapour is considered a greenhouse gas, so an increase in water vapour could lead to an increase in temperatures. If renewable sources aren’t available then fossil fuels may be needed to separate the different elements.

Answer 213

An electric car uses electric motors, using energy from rechargeable batteries. A charging station, either at home and in public areas are then used to charge these batteries. Electric vehicles range from 62-340 miles depending on battery capacity and linked technologies. They are potentially suited to urban environments, helping reduce city air pollution as their range can be limited. They produce zero emissions and virtually no noise pollution. They are cheaper to run than a normal car due to low maintenance. However they are more expensive to buy as well as being a potentially hazard to pedestrians because they are so quiet.

Answer 214

The Tesla Model 3 was the world’s best selling electric vehicle from 2018 to 2019 and had a maximum range of 310 miles. According to Zap-Map in April 2016 there were 3,919 public charging locations in the UK which had to serve over 60,000 registered electric vehicles, with London having nearly 20% of these charging points compared to Wales who had 3%.

Answer 215

cheaper to run than a petrol/diesel car Produces no pollution. Could reduce dependence on fossil fuels for transport. Massively reduced noise pollution compared to a petrol/diesel car.

Answer 216

expensive to buy due to the technology Charging times are improving but can take a while for a full charge. The quietness could be a hazard to pedestrians The ‘greenness’ of an electric vehicle depends on the energy profile of the country e.g. using renewables or non-renewables for charging.

Answer 217

A system that collects CO2 emissions from fixed points such as power plants, then transports the gas and injects it into a suitable geological structure (over 800m below ground). CCS could cut global CO2 emissions by 19% and could extend the use of fossil fuels as well as encourage greater efficiency. However it’s expensive as there is complex technology involved and it isn’t certain whether the CO2 will stay trapped underground as it may leak as well as potentially cause earthquakes because of the pressure.

Answer 218

Canada opened the first coal-fired power plant with CCS in 2014 at a cost of US$1.3 billion. It reduces emissions by 90%. carbon engineering

Answer 219

British Columbia Canada

Answer 220

40 million

Answer 221

large fans and chemical solutions which the particles stick to

Answer 222

Made into pellets and stored in the ground or used to make fuels.

Answer 223

1.5 degrees C

Answer 224

4 million tonnes

Answer 225

$68 million.

Answer 226

Between 70-90% less than normal fuels.

Answer 227

$5-20 per ton.

Answer 228

$50 or more

Answer 229

40 billion tons

Answer 230

net loss of over 500,000 ha of land.

Answer 231

USA and India have gained between 250-500,000 ha of land.

Answer 232

The most land that has been lost is the southern hemisphere. The most land gained is the northern hemisphere.

Answer 233

Tropical forests have lost half of their area since the 1960s, particularly in Africa and South America.

Answer 234

Indonesia has overtaken Brazil in terms of the rate of deforestation. Around 25% of the rainforest has been cleared or burnt in 25 years for palm oil and logging.

Answer 235

Temperate forests (e.g. in the UK and USA) have a long history of exploitation: 90% was deforested by the 19th century.

Answer 236

Boreal forests have been increasingly threatened since the mid-20th century e.g. by oil and tar sands production in Russia and Canada.

Answer 237

The terrestrial biosphere sequesters/stores about ¼ of CO2 emissions annually, directly slowing down global warming. Growing demands for food, fuel and other resources have led to contrasting regional trends of land conversion. This land conversion changes the land from a natural ecosystem to an alternative use, which usually reduces carbon and water stores as well as soil health.

Answer 238

Deforestation of temperate, boreal and tropical forests afforestation grassland conversation

Answer 239

By 2015 30% of all global forest cover had been cleared, 20% degraded and the rest fragmented

Answer 240

13 million hectares of land are deforested annually (36 football fields a minute).

Answer 241

Forests cover 30% of earths surface but only 15% are natural

Answer 242

for soy, palm oil, beef and paper production

Answer 243

50% of all deforestation is for soy, palm oil, beef and paper production. Dams and reservoirs. Infrastructure. Open cast mining for rare minerals.

Answer 244

Clear cutting – used for loggings, removes all primary forest. Slash-and-burn – used for agriculture – trees and cut and set alight. Ash from the burnt trees provides nutrients in the soil.

Answer 245

Reduction in storage in soil and biomass, especially above ground. Reduction in CO2 intake through photosynthesis flux. Increased combustion flux to atmosphere by burning and decomposing vegetation.

Answer 246

Reduced interception leading to changes in infiltration through the soil to ground water stores. Increased raindrop erosion and surface run off leading to more sediment in rivers. Increased aridity ‘downwind’ from loss of evapotranspiration.

Answer 247

Since the 1950s Madagascar’s forests have been deforested at a rapid rate. This is due to an expanding population, growing demand for hardwoods and debt repayments. The Madagascan government encouraged farmers to clear more land to grow cash crops. Before 1950 there were 11.6 million hectares of tropical forest but by 1985 it had reduced down to 3.8 million hectares.

Answer 248

Industrial companies

Answer 249

Charcoal for electricity and fuel, buildings.

Answer 250

Expanding population with no other resources, no international aid, no help/money from the government, people have to fend for themselves, growing international demand for tropical hardwood.

Answer 251

External workers to work locally to provide an alternative solution for the local population.

Answer 252

No remaining forest, long term droughts and extending monsoon seasons.

Answer 253

There are lots of impacts on rivers, landscapes and soil health: An increase in sediment has turned some rivers red – soil erosion now exceeds 400 tonnes per hectare per year in some areas. Extensive logging of inland rainforests and coastal mangroves means that, after heavy rainfall, soil is washed from the hillsides into streams and rivers and eventually clogs the coastal waterways with sediment.

Answer 254

the Betsibokar river Madagascar

Answer 255

planting trees on land that has never had forest, or has been without forest for a long time.

Answer 256

planting trees in places with recent tree cover, replacing lost primary forests.

Answer 257

monocultures (1 single crop/species) such as palm oil. They often store less carbon, use more water and are disease prone.

Answer 258

is the agricultural practice of producing or growing a single crop, plant, or livestock species, variety, or breed in a field or farming system at a time

Answer 259

China’s Three-North Shelterbelt Project – a 4,500km green wall of trees designed to reduce desertification – demonstrates many of these issues.

Answer 260

Monocultures of commercial trees such as in palm oil plantations often store less carbon although it’s better than having no vegetation at all. Biodiversity may be impacted as a result of habitat changes. Monocultures tend to be more disease prone having a negative impact on biodiversity.

Answer 261

Monocultures tend to use more water leading to less infiltration and groundwater rates. Decreased raindrop erosion. Evapotranspiration rates may alter surrounding downwind ecosystems.

Answer 262

temperate grasslands tropical/savannah grasslands

Answer 263

between 2007 and 2015, a biofuel ‘rush’ swept across the American Midwest – often referred to as the Prairies. During this ‘rush’ farmers were encouraged to grow corn, soya, canola (a type of rapeseed) and sugar cane as part of the US Environmental Protection Agency’s Renewable Fuel Standard Policy By 2013 the price of corn trebled, and a number of US states were cashing in.

Answer 264

Increase the amount of ethanol being used in petrol Boost the economies of rural US states Reduce US dependence on overseas oil imports Reduce CO2 emissions from transport

Answer 265

traditionally used for cattle ranching - were ploughed up, and in some states the area of corn being cultivated doubled.

Answer 266

Over 5.5 million hectares of natural grassland disappeared across the American Midwest, which matches the rate of rainforest deforestation across Brazil, Malaysia and Indonesia.

Answer 267

Trap moisture and floodwater Absorb toxins from the soil, maintaining their health. Providing cover for dry soils – preventing soil erosion. Maintain natural habitats. Acts as a carbon sink and a terrestrial carbon store.

Answer 268

Soils release CO2 when grasslands are initially removed and through annual ploughing. Biofuel crops need carbon-based nitrogen fertiliser and chemical pesticides, so they produce a net increase in CO2 emissions. Biofuels consume a lot of water, impacting on local aquifers for irrigation. Cultivated soils are liable to erosion by surface runoff and wind Natural habitats lost

Answer 269

agriculture, industry, transport, deforestation, electricity generation, cement production, wetland/peatland loss.

Answer 270

increase in frequency and intensity of storms and tropical storms; rising temperatures; rising sea levels; more frequent floods, droughts and heat waves.

Answer 271

An extended period of deficient rainfall relative to the statistical average of that region measured over a long period of time.

Answer 272

Shifting of global weather patterns Shifting climate zones Scientists at the University of Colorado have found that a warming of 2 degrees resulted in about 5% of the Earths land area effectively shifting into a new climate zone. The pace of change then increases for the next 2 degrees of warming with an additional 10% of land area shifting to a new climate zone.

Answer 273

Mid-latitudes in the northern hemisphere are at the most risk. Highly populated countries are at the highest risk of drought.

Answer 274

Moldova and Ukraine.

Answer 275

An expansion of subtropical deserts and a poleward movement of stormy, wet weather in the mid-latitudes Changing snow/rainfall patterns and increasing temperatures in mountain regions could cause reliable streams/springs dry as well as melt glaciers resulting in a very little run off in the future.

Answer 276

the amazon basin

Answer 277

2005, 2010, and 2015-16

Answer 278

The Amazon Basin plays a key role in the Earth’s carbon cycle, holding 17% of the terrestrial vegetation carbon store.

Answer 279

Billions of trees died, releasing greenhouse gases. Rivers dried up, lots of fish died. The drier the forest gets, the less carbon it can store. Fires broke out – burning trees and litter releasing CO2. Decomposition of dead vegetation

Answer 280

1.5 billion tonnes

Answer 281

5 billion tonnes

Answer 282

8 billion tonnes

Answer 283

There are further concerns that, as climate change increases temperatures and alters rainfall patterns across South America, the Amazon rainforest will change from a carbon sink to a carbon source – accelerating global warming.

Answer 284

13 million

Answer 285

Palm oil is the most commonly produced vegetable oil - used in foods like frozen pizzas and biscuits as well as cosmetics and biofuels.

Answer 286

66 million tonnes

Answer 287

Indonesia is the largest producer and in 2015 its GHG emissions overtook those of the USA.

Answer 288

700 this was because indigenous and local people are often driven out of areas they have inhabited for generations.

Answer 289

over 1.6 million people and over 90% of these are the poorest in societies

Answer 290

fundamental to human wellbeing and survival

Answer 291

13.2 million formal jobs 41 million informal jobs

Answer 292

water purification Aesthetic, educational, spiritual, recreational Improve food and nutrition security Source of livestock fodder Goods: water, wood, fibres, fuels, foods Fuel wood source for 1/3 people globally for cooking and boiling water. A genetic pool- a source for improving plant strains and medicines Nutrient cycling- soil formation and primary production Help prevent flooding and landslides Maintains atmosphere through photosynthesis

Answer 293

Despite huge losses from deforestation each year, the rate of deforestation has slowed! Between 1990 and 2015 the rate of net global deforestation slowed down by more than 50% and total forest carbon emissions decreased by 25% according to the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UN (FAO). This change is particularly happening in developed countries.

Answer 294

A model that suggests that societies reach a tipping point where exploitation changes more towards protection.

Answer 295

Wealth of countries Rising knowledge of the role the environment plays in human wellbeing Aid given to poorer nations to help choices over exploitation Political systems and enforcement of laws Participation of locals Power of TNCs

Answer 296

indonesia In May 2011 Indonesia's president declared a ‘forest moratorium’ - aimed at trying to reduce deforestation. They received $1 billion funding from the UN and Norwegian government. The Moratorium stopped new lands getting forest clearance permits. By 2013 emissions had fallen by 1-2.5%. However illegal logging is still an issue. In 2015 the moratorium was extended to help Indonesia further reduce its CO2 emissions by 26% by 2020.

Answer 297

increased sustainable management

Answer 298

13% of forests (534 million hectares)

Answer 299

Brazil and the USA

Answer 300

Temperate forest areas (mainly in developed countries) has increased, although tropical rainforests (mainly in developing countries) has decreased.

Answer 301

Brazil has halved it’s deforestation rate since 2000 but continues to lose forest.

Answer 302

80%-10% following centuries of exploitation

Answer 303

planted fast growing conifers like Sitka Spruce. Forest cover increased by 25% between 1870 and 1947 and by 50% between 1948-1995. By 2016 13% of the UK was forested with increasing numbers of indigenous species being planted.

Answer 304

They are a major carbon sink: they have absorbed about 30% of the C02 produced as a result of human activities since 1800, and about 50% of that produced by burning fossil fuels. Due to this absorption the acidity of our oceans is changing which is a big problem.

Answer 305

During acidification, carbonic acid reacts with carbonate ions in the water to form bicarbonate. The higher the acidity, the more it dissolves carbonate shells

Answer 306

Ocean acidification has lowered the pH of the ocean by about 0.1. That means that it’s now 30% more acidic than it was in 1750, before the Industrial Revolution.

Answer 307

There are many important natural processes that are affected by the oceans acidity/alkalinity (pH). Most biological activity and all photosynthesis takes place near the surface. Changes in ocean chemistry has substantial direct and indirect affects on these organisms (such as their life cycle) and their habitat. Marine photosynthetic organisms and animals such as corals, make shells and plates out of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). This process of ‘calcification’ is massively affected the less alkaline there is in the oceans.

Answer 308

is an animal which is like a small bag. The opening on top is the mouth. Tentacles (little arms) around the mouth carry a sting which paralyses small animals which are then eaten by the coral. When the animal dies, new polyps live on top of the older structure.

Answer 309

When coral becomes stressed, corals evict the algae, turning it white. If bleaching continues, the coral will die due to starvation.

Answer 310

coral bleaching

Answer 311

Increased amount of CO2 absorbed into the oceans producing more bicarbonate and increasing acidity of water.

Answer 312

It’s increasing and is occurring more frequently.

Answer 313

ocean acidity rising temps= increased rates of evaporation

Answer 314

precipitation patterns river water stores (cryosphere and drainage basin stores)

Answer 315

Existing weather patterns will get stronger (wet places will get wetter and dry places will get drier). This is because warm air traps more water – scientists expect more water to fall on wet places.

Answer 316

‘the annual variation in discharge or flow, at a particular point’. The character of the regime is influenced by climate. Increased temperatures = more snow/glacier melt, and an increased in the amount and intensity of precipitation

Answer 317

Cryosphere has been losing mass as ice sheets and glaciers melt. Arctic temperatures have risen twice as fast as global averages in the past 20 years. This means huge implications for ocean currents, air circulation, sea level rise and flooding.

Answer 318

Yukon is a territory in the far northwest of Canada and a significant part of it lies within the Arctic Circle. Like most Arctic and sub-artic areas it has seen temperatures rise sharply, and forecasts are for continued warning.

Answer 319

Increasing temperatures lead to increased evaporation and atmospheric water vapour.

Answer 320

Across Yukon, winter precipitation increased between 1950 and 1998. However a greater proportion fell as rain in spring and less as snow (as previously).

Answer 321

Snowmelt now begins earlier and snow cover is decreasing. This alters river regimes, bringing earlier peak flows to most river basins.

Answer 322

shrank by 22% and, as glaciers recede, streamflow is decreasing – despite an initial increase in meltwater.

Answer 323

Climate change is leading to thawing of permafrost – so water penetrates deeper into the soil, instead of forming surface runoff. As the permafrost thaws, climate change could increase the amount of groundwater.

Answer 324

Since 2000, inflows to the Yukon river have increased by 39% due to increasing temperature and precipitation.

Answer 325

Over the last 20 years the ice sheets in the Antarctic and Greenland ice sheets have been losing mass and the Arctic sea ice and northern hemisphere spring snow cover have continued to decrease in extent and thickness. The Arctic acts as an early warning system, acting as a barometer of the environmental impacts resulting from fossil fuel use.

Answer 326

In the past few decades, average Arctic temperatures have risen twice as fast as global averages: 3-4- degrees in Alaska and north-west Canada. Which could soon increase another 4-5 degrees over land, and 7 degrees over the ocean.

Answer 327

Warm water flowing into the Arctic from the Pacific and Atlantic. Rising local temperatures – increased evaporation. Shrinkage of sea ice; the Arctic ice cap averages only 3m thick and melting is increasing faster than anticipated. Run-off of fresh, cold water which will alter marine ecosystems and food chains dependent on the saline waters; predicted to affect areas outside the Arctic Ocean by 2100. Funnelling of more cold water into the oceanic conveyor belt.

Answer 328

Increased or new emissions of: CH4 (methane) from destabilisation of wetlands and sea floor deposits containing methane hydrate, stored for thousands of years. Increased or new emissions of: mainly CH4 and some CO2 from thawing permafrost. Increased or new emissions of: CO2 from increased forest fires as boreal forests dry out; they may also absorb CO2 and CH4 from the atmosphere.

Answer 329

Mangroves are found along tropical and sub-tropical coasts of Africa, Australia, Asia and the Americas.

Answer 330

They sequester almost 1.5 metric tonnes of carbon per hectare, per year.

Answer 331

Their soils consist of thick organic layers of litter, humus and peat, which contain high levels of carbon – over 10%. As they are submerged twice a day by high tides their soils are anaerobic (without oxygen), bacteria and microbes can’t survive without oxygen so decomposition of plant matter is slow – meaning little carbon is respired back into the atmosphere so is stored for thousands of years.

Answer 332

Mangroves can provide many benefits to our communities: they stabilise the coastline against erosion. They provide protection and shelter against extreme weather (e.g. storms winds and floods) and tsunamis, by absorbing and dispersing surges. They provide nurseries for coastal fish away from predators.

Answer 333

globally half of all mangrove forests have been lost since 1950.

Answer 334

We are draining and clearing mangrove forests for tourism, shrimp farming and aquaculture – this has accounted for over 25% of the loss of the forests.

Answer 335

The FAO (Food and Agriculture Organisation) estimates that fishing supports 500 million people, 90% of which are in developing countries.

Answer 336

Fish provide 16% of the annual protein consumption for 3 billion people, and is the main source of cheap protein for 3 billion people.

Answer 337

Coral reefs shelter 25% of marine species.

Answer 338

Research carried out in the North Sea, suggests that marine organisms may be responding faster to climate change then terrestrial plants and animals, with some shifts of animals and some plants towards the poles to compensate for a warming environment.

Answer 339

. Arctic krill stocks (food for whales) are declining by up to 75% per decade in some parts of the Southern Ocean. The main cause of damage has been climate change, added to reefs being lost by coastal pollution caused by industrial and agricultural runoff.

Answer 340

egs- madagascar, amazon rainforest, indonesia land conversions- deforestation eg madagascar afforestation eg palm oil grassland conversion eg american midwest

Answer 341

Loss of various activates, resources, less maintenance/regulation of atmosphere/carbon cycle = increase mental health difficulties, loss of education (etc.) Increased CO2 in atmosphere – rising temperatures = global warming. Loss of suitable farmland due to soil erosion, lack of nutrients, spread of disease – difficult with an increased population Social, economic, environmental

Answer 342

Increased amounts of drought – less trees = less water vapour in atmosphere. Amazons pumps 20 billion metric tonnes of water into atmosphere daily. Since 1990 more extreme droughts & flooding due to climate shifts (e.g. Amazon) Increased amounts of flooding Coral reef and marine species loss = loss of habitats for fish, food sources for people and loss of tourism industry e.g. Great Barrier Reef. Mangrove loss – loss of coastal protection/stabilisation. Social, economic, environmental

Answer 343

Climate Scientists predict that surface temperatures will continue to rise, with increases between 2000-2100 in the range of 2-6°C.

Answer 344

physical factors human factors feedback mechanisms

Answer 345

Oceans and forests act as carbon sinks. Their response to increased GHG emissions and higher temperatures will continue to affect the global climate for possible hundreds of years. Deforestation - overall the amount of forested land is on a global decline.

Answer 346

economic growth energy source population change

Answer 347

After economic crashes, e.g. the 2008 Financial Crash, there is an expectation that they’ll be a rise in emissions during recovery of global GDP. Fortunately after 2008, emissions fell to 1% by 2012-13 down from 4%, then fell to 0.5% in 2014. Total carbon emissions still reached a record high.

Answer 348

Energy consumption grew by 2% between 2008-2014. However renewables made up two-thirds of the increase in electricity production in 2015.

Answer 349

Increasing affluence means a potential extra billion consumers by 2050. Changing diets and increase mobility means more emissions.

Answer 350

By 2014 the three largest CO2 emitters were China, the USA and India. In 2000, China overtook the USA because of a global shift in manufacturing projections and its rapid urbanisation and industrialisation. In terms of CO2 per capita, China is ranked 55th at 6.23 metric tonnes per capita; the USA 8th at 17.6 and India 127th at 1.7 – reflecting the level of economic development, with a positive relationship between economic growth and CO2 emissions

Answer 351

Feedback mechanisms can either dampen (negative feedback) or amplify (positive feedback) responses to a changing climate. Peatlands: Warming causes peat to dry out as water tables fall, increasing decomposition rates and releasing methane. A warming of 4˚C causes a 40% loss of soil organic carbon from shallow peat, and 86% from deep peat. Permafrost: The melting of permafrost releases trapped CO2 and methane.

Answer 352

A climate tipping point is a critical threshold whereby a carbon sink could become a carbon source.

Answer 353

forest die back Changes to thermohaline circulation

Answer 354

Rainfall in the amazon basin is largely recycled from moisture within the forest. If the rainforest is subject to drought, trees die back. A tipping point can be reached when the level of die back actually stops the recycling of moisture – resulting in further die back.

Answer 355

Cold, deep water in the North Atlantic forms part of the thermohaline circulation. To keep the ‘conveyor belt’ of warm water heading from the Tropics towards Britain, heavy, salty water must sink in the north. However, melting of ice sheets release large amounts of freshwater (less salty meaning its lighter) into the ocean – blocking and slowing the conveyor down. As ice sheets melt, the ocean circulation is susceptible to a critical tipping point.

Answer 356

adaption mitigation

Answer 357

carbon taxation renewable switching energy efficiency afforestation carbon capture and storage

Answer 358

the carbon price floor tax sets a minimum price companies have to pay to emit c02 it was unpopular with both industry and environmental groups and had debatable effects on emmisions in 2015 the policy was 'frozen' lower road taxes for low carbon emmiting cars were scrapped in 2015 in 2015 oil and gas exploration tax relief was expanded to support fossil fuels hence the fracking debate

Answer 359

the relationship between big energy providers and the government dictates the amount of switching from fossil fuels to renewables and nuclear power renewables (solar, wind and wave) provide intermmittent electricity while fossil fuels provide the continuos power essential for our current infrastructure The Climate change levy designed in 2001 to encourage renewable energy investment and use was cut in 2015

Answer 360

the green deal scheme encouraged energy saving improvements to homes such as efficient boilers and lighting and improved insulation- was scrapped in 2015 energy suppliers must comply with the energy company obligation scheme to deliver energy efficient measures to householders

Answer 361

tree planting in the uk is increasing, helping carbon sequestration it involves the forestry commision, charities such as the national trust and woodland trust, landowners and local authorities the big tree plant campaign encourages communities to plant 1 million trees mostly in urban areas

Answer 362

few actual geologic CCs projects exist globally despite its potential Canadas Boundary dam is the only large scale working scheme in 2015 the uk government cancelled its investment into full scale projects at gas and coal powered plants in Peterhead in scotland and Drax in yorkshire respectivley

Answer 363

mitigation needs agreement at national, global and individual scales.

Answer 364

1. Global - UN roadmaps and goals e.g Kyoto protocol 2. National- TNCs. Shell’s research and management as well as groups like Greenpeace. 3. Local - Winchester’s WinACC who lobby for local changes in attitude and actions 4. Public - online e-petitioning e.g the 38 degrees campaign.

Answer 365

Global - UN roadmaps and goals A roadmap is a essentially a ‘toolbox’ - a collection of guidance and advice. The UN has a roadmap to help local areas and communities take part in and work towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). It covers a range of strategies that can be adapted to the specific contexts and needs of different cities ad regions. The UN SDG Roadmap has 5 parts: awareness raising; advocacy; implementation; monitoring; and where do we go from here? It aims to support local and regional governments and their associations to implement and monitor the SDGs and to influence national policy-making with a view to creating an enabling environment for action at local and regional level.

Answer 366

National - TNCs. Shell’s research and management as well as groups like Greenpeace Shell Invested heavily in the lowest-carbon biofuel, through a joint venture with Cosan in Brazil as well as supporting second-generation biofuel options. ‘New Energies’ business was created in 2016, aiming to explore investment opportunities in energy solutions that combine wind and solar power with gas. ‘Shell Ventures’, established in 1996 invests in start-ups and small/medium enterprises to encourage scale and growth. There focused is mixed, however renewables is an area receiving investment. Specifically supporting customers meeting their personal energy use, as well as investing in wind and solar and storage solutions. Greenpeace An international organisation founded in 1971. Has the aim of having a green and peaceful world and work on several priority campaigns such as: fossil fuels; deforestation; ocean plastic. Greenpeace investigates those responsible for environmental crime and work with affected communities to identify solutions.

Answer 367

Local - Winchester’s WinACC who lobby for local changes in attitude and actions A local environmental organisation that ‘thinks globally’ but ‘starts locally’. WinACC began in 2007, seeking to influence behaviour change at the grassroots (local) and policymakers level, becoming successful on a variety of community projects and the priority given to climate change by Winchester City Council. The group works with the local council to lower the carbon footprint of the Winchester District by inspiring sustainable living. They work with a variety of people including local residents; businesses; educators; and policy and decision makers. There aim is to cut the carbon footprint of Winchester District by 60% by 2030 and to ensure that at least 15% of the energy used in the district comes from local renewable sources by the end of 2020.

Answer 368

Public - online e-petitioning e.g. the 38 degrees campaign. 38 Degrees is an online campaigning organisation, involving more than 2 million people from every corner of the UK. The organisation was launched in 2009 and is a not-for-profit company. It aims to empower citizens by providing easy ways for people to take action against issues that they care about, including climate change.

Answer 369

an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, which commits its parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets. Recognising that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of "common but differentiated responsibilities." The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December 1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules for the implementation of the Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as the "Marrakesh Accords." Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.

Answer 370

operates until 2020, it started a global approach to tackling anthropogenic climate change, it was the beggining of regular UN conferences on climate change the clean development mechanism supports 75 developing countries in developing less polluting technology kyoto paved the way for new rules and measurements on low carbon legislation such as the uks 2008 climate change act, china is slowing emmisions (may be due to an economic downturn and greener energy) by 2012 emmisions were 22.6% lower than 1990 levels well beyond the 5% goal, however 2015 showed a 65% increase above 1990 levels mainly driven by india and china

Answer 371

slow ratification, the uk was one of the first but others struggled (russia) or withdrew (usa, canada and japan) fearing economic impacts only industrialised countries were asked to sign, not developing nations, the top emmitters- the usa and china- were left out of the agreement complex trading systems were started allowing the trading of 'carbon credits', buying emmisions allowances from countries not needing them, carbon sinks were allowed to offset emmisions- both these are criticised for allowing polluters to pollute emmisions reductions may be because of other factors such as cheaper gas replacing coal and a global shift of manufacturing from MEDcs to the global soth

Answer 372

195 participating countries agreed to the landmark Paris Climate Agreement in November 2016, accounting for 66% of global emissions. It was the first universally legally binding global climate deal There was an overarching aim: to limit temperature increase to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels. Countries set their own goals to reduce emissions. Countries should honestly report their progress every 5 years.

Answer 373

Countries can set their own individual targets 195 countries signed up. Individual targets all work towards of limiting temperature increase to 1.5˚C above pre-industrial levels.

Answer 374

No punishment if targets aren’t met Signing the agreement and acting on it are two different things A national effort is required for targets to be met, including public backing, which can be tricky Progress reporting may not be accurate. Not a truly global agreement as developing countries are omitted that haven’t created the pollution.

Answer 375

The COP26 summit brought parties together to accelerate action towards the goals of the Paris Agreement and the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change. This meeting reviewed the plans and updates submitted from countries, reviewing how they will reduce their emissions – these are known as nationally determined contributions (NDCs). COP26 concluded that all countries agreed to keep the 1.5°C target and the ‘Glasgow Climate Pact’ means that the 1.5°C remains in sight and scales up action on dealing with climate impacts, but it will only be delivered with concerted and immediate global efforts

carbon Flashcards

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