glaciers

Question 1

pleistocene period

Answer 1

A geological period from about 2 million years ago to 11,500 years ago, the early part of the quaternary which included the most recent age

Question 2

greenhouse conditions

Answer 2

Much warmer interglacial condition

Question 3

interglacials

Answer 3

Warmer periods similar to present i.e. greenhouse periods

Question 4

glacials

Answer 4

Cold, ice-house periods within the Pleistocene

Question 5

ice house conditions

Answer 5

very cold glacial conditions

Question 6

what are the 4 main types of cold environment

Answer 6

polar
alpine
periglacial
glacial

Question 7

what is a polar environment

Answer 7

glacial environments are found in the high latitudes of the Antarctic and Arctic. They are characterised by extremely cold temperatures (average annually of -30 to -40°C and low levels of precipitation. ​

Question 8

what is a alpine environment

Answer 8

glacial environments are found at high altitudes in mountain ranges in the mid-low latitudes e.g. European Alps, the Himalayas and Andes. They are characterised by high levels of precipitation and a wide temperature range with frequent freeze-thaw cycles

Question 9

what is a glaciar environment

Answer 9

are slow-moving bodies of ice in valleys, which shape the landscape in both polar and alpine environments

Question 10

what is a periglacial environment

Answer 10

hese environments do not feature glaciers, but are usually found next to glacial areas. They are characterised by permafrost and occur in high latitude or high-altitude areas where seasonal temperatures vary above and below freezing point. E.g. Siberia, Alaska and northern Canada

Question 11

what are eons

Answer 11

the longest span of geological time; eras are the second longest
Eon often refers to a span of around one billion years. ​

Question 12

the pleistocene epoch

Answer 12

often known as the ice age as it contained 50 glacial-interglacial cycles and glacials reached their furthest extent in this time. ​

Question 13

what was the last glacial maximum

Answer 13

known as the Devensian which was 18,000 years ago

Question 14

what was the last UK glacial advance

Answer 14

the Lock Lomond Stadial which was 12,000 to 10,000 years ago and marked the end of the Pleistocene epoch

Question 15

what type of environment is the UK now

Answer 15

UK is now called a relict glacial environment (it no longer experiences glacial conditions but it does display evidence of the Pleistocene glaciation period.)​

Question 16

when was the Start of the Pleistocene epoch/Quaternary period

Answer 16

2.6 million years ago

Question 17

when did the Devensian glacial end (lasr glacial maximum)

Answer 17

180,000 years ago

Question 18

when was the End of the Pleistocene/start of the Holocene epoch

Answer 18

11,500 years ago

Question 19

when was the Lock Lomond stadial (last UK glacial advance)

Answer 19

10,000-12,000 years ago

Question 20

stadial and interstadial

Answer 20

short-term fluctuations within ice-house and greenhouse conditions; stadials are colder periods that lead to ice re-advances, interstadials are shorter periods of warmth.​

Question 21

why are there fluctuations of glacials and interglacials

Answer 21

long and short term causes of climate change

Question 22

long term causes of climate change (milankovitch cycles)

Answer 22

continental drift
eccentricity of the orbit
axial tilt
wobble

Question 23

short term causes of climate change

Answer 23

variations in solar output
volcanic causes

Question 24

continental drift

Answer 24

3 million years ago the North and South American tectonic plates collided. This re-routed ocean currents so that warm Caribbean waters were forced northwest, creating the Gulf Stream.​

Question 25

eccentricity of the orbit

Answer 25

The shape of the Earth’s orbit varies from circular to elliptical over 100,000 year cycles. The Earth receives less solar radiation in the elliptical orbit when the Earth is farthest from the Sun. (A position known as aphelion)

Question 26

axial tilt

Answer 26

The tilt of the Earth’s axis varies between 21.5° and 24.5° over 41,000 year cycles. This changes the severity of the seasons. ​

Question 27

wobble

Answer 27

the Earth wobbles as it spins on its axis, which means that the season during which the Earth is nearest to the Sun (a position known as perihelion) varies. At present, the northern hemisphere winter occurs in perihelion. i.e. milder conditions than previous winters in aphelion. This varies over approximately 21,000 year cycles resulting in changes in the intensity of the seasons. ​

Question 28

variations in solar output

Answer 28

The dark areas of the Sun (sunspots) are caused by intense magnetic activity in the Sun’s interior. An increase in the number of sunspots means that the Sun is more active and giving off more energy. They appear to vary over an 11 year cycle. ​

Question 29

volcanic causes

Answer 29

Large eruptions can eject huge volumes of ash, sulphur dioxide, water vapour and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere (volcanic aerosols) which are globally distributed by winds. This aerosol blocks the Sun’s radiation, cooling the Earth. The ash tends to settle back on Earth within a few months, however the sulphur dioxide gas can remain in the atmosphere for up to three years, which reflect the radiation back into space. ​

Question 30

what is the cryosphere

Answer 30

The cryosphere consists of ice sheets and glaciers, together with sea ice, lake ice, permafrost and snow cover.​

Question 31

what are mass and energy constantly exchanged between

Answer 31

Mass and energy are constantly exchanged between the cryosphere and other major components of Earth systems; the hydrosphere. Lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere

Question 32

what are glaciers

Answer 32

large bodies of ice which flow downhill under the influence of gravity. ​

Question 33

what are the two bases of glaciers

Answer 33

land based glacier
marine based

Question 34

land based glaciers

Answer 34

their base is at or above sea level e.g Mer de Glace flows from Mont Blanc in the Alps, or glaciers flowing from the Rocky Mountains.​

Question 35

marine based glacier

Answer 35

where the base is below sea level. E.g. the West Antarctica Ice Sheet – which is 2000m below sea level actually frozen to the sea bed. ​

Question 36

what are the two types of glaciers

Answer 36

warm based glaciers
cold based glaciers

Question 37

warm based gaciers

Answer 37

occur in high altitude areas outside the polar regions e.g. the Alps. The temperature of the ice is often close to zero and mild summer temperatures cause melting.

Question 38

cold based glaciers

Answer 38

These occur in polar glacial environments such as Greenland and Antarctica. These glaciers are frozen onto the bedrock below and melting only occurs on the surface in the summer months. ​

Question 39

types of ice mass

Answer 39

ice sheet
ice cap
ice field
valley glacier
piedmont glacier
cirque glacier
ice shelf

Question 40

ice sheet

Answer 40

Complete submergence of regional topography; forms a gently sloping dome of ice several kilometres thick in the centre​

Question 41

ice cap

Answer 41

Smaller version of ice sheet occupying upland areas; outlet glaciers and ice sheets drain both ice sheets and ice caps​

​

Question 42

ice field

Answer 42

ice covering an upland area, but not thick enough to bury topography; many do not extend beyond highland source

Question 43

valley glacier

Answer 43

Glacier confined between valley walls and terminating in a narrow tongue; forms from ice caps/sheets or cirques; may terminate in sea as a tidewater glacier.​

​

Question 44

piedmont glacier

Answer 44

Valley glacier which extends beyond the end of a mountain valley into a flatter area and spreads out like a fan​

Question 45

cirque glacier

Answer 45

Smaller glacier occupying a hollow on the mountain side – carves out a corrie or cirque; smaller version is known as a niche glacier​

Question 46

ice shelf

Answer 46

Large area of floating glacier ice extending from the coast where several glaciers have reached the sea and merge.​

​

Question 47

ice sheet size

Answer 47

10-100,000​ sq km

Question 48

ice cap size

Answer 48

3-10,000​ sq km

Question 49

ice field size

Answer 49

10-10,000 sq km

Question 50

valley glacier size

Answer 50

3-1,500​ sq km

Question 51

piedmont glacier

Answer 51

3-1,000​ sq km

Question 52

cirque glacier

Answer 52

0.5-8​ sq km

Question 53

ice shelf size

Answer 53

10-100,000​ sq km

Question 54

the glacial system

Answer 54

Glaciers gain mass through the transformation of snow into ice and then flow downhill (in response to gravity) and eventually lose mass due to melting. Hence glaciers can be viewed as systems with inputs, stores, transfers and outputs.​

Question 55

accumulation defintion

Answer 55

the input of snow and ice to a glacier ​

Question 56

ablation defintion

Answer 56

the output of snow and ice from a glacier ​

Question 57

sublimation

Answer 57

the process of a substance turning from a solid directly to a gas without the liquid stage in the middle.​

Question 58

glacier mass balance

Answer 58

is calculated using the total accumulation and ablation within a year.​

Question 59

equilibrium line

Answer 59

when losses from ablation are balanced by gains from the accumulation in a glacier ​

Question 60

accumulation (inputs)

Answer 60

avalanches from above slopes
rock debris
wind deposition
precipitation (mainly snow)

Question 61

ablation (outputs)

Answer 61

evaporation (sublimation)
break away of ice blocks and ice bergs (calving)
meltwater
melting (water)

Question 62

glacial budget

Answer 62

A glacier mass balance/annual budget is calculated using the total accumulation and ablation within a year.​

Question 63

what does the glacial system involve

Answer 63

inputs, stores, transfers and outputs​
Accumulation​
Ablation​
Sublimation​
Equilibrium line​
Mass balance​

Question 64

how much greater was ice cover at the Pleistocene maximum than the present day

Answer 64

more than three times greater

Question 65

general trends in ice cover

Answer 65

Major ice extensions were over North America and Europe.​
Ice extensions over West and South of South America.​

Question 66

ice cover of the Antarctica and Greenland ice sheets

Answer 66

The Antarctica and Greenland ice sheets only covered a slightly greater area than they do today. With the West Antarctica ice sheet expanding 10km either side of the peninsula

Question 67

ice cover of the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets

Answer 67

The Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets covered East and West of North America stretching to around 3000km in width​

Question 68

ice cover of the scandinavian ice sheet

Answer 68

The Scandinavian Ice Sheet across Europe, in particular covering the area of UK the UK widening to 500km

Question 69

at present what % of Earths land area does ice cover

Answer 69

ice covers over 10% of the Earth’s land area which accounts for 75% of the world’s freshwater (about 1.8 % of all water on Earth.​

Question 70

what % of all glacier ice is contained in Antarctica

Answer 70

85%

Question 71

what factors affect distribution of ice mass distribution

Answer 71

latitude
altitude
aspect

Question 72

why is latitude a factor in ice mass distribution

Answer 72

particularly important for polar ice masses. In high latitudes the sun’s rays hits the ground at a lower angle, so the solar energy received has to heat a larger area.​

Question 73

why is altitude a factor in ice mass distribution

Answer 73

particularly important for alpine glaciers. High altitudes are impacted by the environmental lapse rate (ELR) whereby temperature declines by 1° for every 100m above sea level

Question 74

why is aspect an important factor in ice mass distribution

Answer 74

This can determine the amount of snow falling and where it settles. In the northern hemisphere, north and east facing slopes are both more sheltered and shadier

Question 75

periglacial meaning

Answer 75

The term ‘periglacial’ has previously been used to refer to cold environments on the margins of glaciers, today though the term is widely used to refer to non-glacial cold environments, which are characterised by periods of extreme cold, dry conditions.

Question 76

what are periglacial environments also referred to as

Answer 76

the tundra – a term describing the treeless vegetation of dwarf shrubs, grasses, lichens and mosses. ​

Question 77

what is permafrost

Answer 77

permanently frozen ground where subsoil temperatures remain below 0°C for at least two consecutive years. ​

​

Question 78

what % of the earth experiences periglacial conditions

Answer 78

20%
mainly in the northern hemisphere. During the Pleistocene glacial periods, this was higher at 33% and at much lower latitudes than today

Question 79

what are the 3 types of permafrost

Answer 79

continuous
sporadic
discontinous

Question 80

continuous permafrost

Answer 80

forms in the coldest areas of the world where mean annual temperatures are below -6°C. It is found at the highest latitudes. It can extend downwards for hundreds of metres. ​

Question 81

sporadic permafrost

Answer 81

occurs where the mean annual temperature is only just below freezing and permafrost cover amounts of less than 50% of the landscape

Question 82

discontinuous permafrost

Answer 82

is shallower and permanently frozen ground is fragmented by patches of unfrozen ground (talik). The surface layer of the ground melts during the summer months. ​

Question 83

what factors affect periglacial distribution

Answer 83

climate
proximity to water bodies
slope angle and aspect
ground surface
vegetation cover

Question 84

climate

Answer 84

temperature and moisture determine the presence or absence, depth and extent of permafrost​

Question 85

proximity to water bodies

Answer 85

lakes tend to be warmer so remain unfrozen​

Question 86

slope angle and aspect

Answer 86

influencing solar radiation and therefore melting, freeze-thaw and wind

Question 87

ground surface

Answer 87

rock and soil types can determine degree and depth of permafrost

Question 88

vegetation cover

Answer 88

can insulate the ground​

Question 89

what processes shape periglacial landscapes and landforms

Answer 89

freeze thaw weathering
soliflvution
nivation
frost heave
groundwater freezing
ground contraction
aeolian action
meltwater erosion

Question 90

what is freeze thaw weathering

Answer 90

when water freezes in the cracks and joints of rock, it expands by 10%of its volume, weaknening the rock and causing disintergration through repeated freeze thaw cycles
process is also known as frost action or frost shattering

Question 91

what landform does freeze thaw weathering create

Answer 91

an accumulation of frost shattered rock fragments known as a blockfield when on a flat surface and scree when on a slope

Question 92

solifluction

Answer 92

the downslope movement of the saturated active layer under the influence of gravity
known as gelifluction when it occurs over impermeable permafrost

Question 93

what periglacial landform does solifluction create

Answer 93

a tongue shaped feature at the foot of a slope knwon as a solifluction lobe

Question 94

nivation

Answer 94

a combination of processes weakens and erodes the ground beneath a snow patch
these processes include freeze thaw weathering solifluction and meltwater erosion

Question 95

what landform does nivation create

Answer 95

rounded nivation hollows formed in upland areas

Question 96

frost heave

Answer 96

the freezing and expansion of soil water causes the upward dislocation of soil and rocks
as the ground freezes, large stones become chilled more rapidly than the soil
water below such stones freezes and expands, pushing the stones upwards and forming small domes on the ground surface

Question 97

what landform does frost heave create

Answer 97

on flat ground stone polygons formed as the large stones settle around the edges of the domes
on slopes stone stripes formed as the stones moved downhill

Question 98

what is groundwater freezing

Answer 98

where water is able to filter down into the upper layers of the ground and then freeze
the expansion of the ice causes overlying sediments to heave upwards into a dome which may rise as high as 50m

Question 99

what landform is created by groundwater freezing

Answer 99

an ice cored dome called a pingo

Question 100

ground contraction

Answer 100

when dry areas of the active layer refreeze, the ground cracks and contracts
ice wedges will form when meltwater enters the crack during summer and freezes at the start of winter
repeated thawing and refreezing of the ice widens and deepens the crack, enlarging the ice wedges

Question 101

landform created by ground contraction

Answer 101

large scale polygonal patterns on the ground surface knwon as ice wedge polygons

Question 102

aeolian action

Answer 102

due to limited vegetation cover the wind is able to pick up and transport the fine dry sediment from the ground surface

Question 103

landform created by aeolian action

Answer 103

extensive accumulations of wind-blown deposits known as loess

Question 104

meltwater erosion

Answer 104

during the short summer, thawing creates meltwater which erodes stream or river channels
refreezing at the onset of winter causes a reduction in discharge and sediment deposition in the channel

Question 105

landforms created by meltwater erosion

Answer 105

braided streams with multiple channels separated by islands of deposited material

Question 106

periglacial landforms

Answer 106

blockfield
solifluction lobe
nivation hollows
stone polygons
pingo
ice wedge polygons
loess
braided stream

Question 107

ice wedges

Answer 107

When permafrost contracts under extremely low temperatures it cracks. ​
During summer months, meltwater enters cracks in the ground.
During winter this meltwater freezes, forcing the crack to widen. ​

Question 108

patterned ground

Answer 108

The landforms are formed by a series of movements resulting from frost action.​
Frost can push sediment upwards as well as outwards.​
Larger sediments roll out to the outside of the pattern, leaving finer sediments in the middle
Mass movement can also cause stone nets and stripes – beyond a slope of 30°, these ground features no longer occur

Question 109

pingo

Answer 109

They are ice core mounds between 30-70m in height and 100 – 500m in diameter. ​
They can either be conical (cone shaped) or elongated
In the summer when the pingo ice core melts, it’s centre collapses to form a central dip or depression – this can sometimes be filled with water.​

Question 110

where are open system pingos found

Answer 110

Found in discontinuous zone of permafrost or valley floors

Question 111

open system pingos

Answer 111

hydrolic pingos/east greenland type
Freely available groundwater is drawn towards the expanding ice core, so the pingo grows from below the ground.

Question 112

where are closed system pingos found

Answer 112

Associated with low-lying flat areas and only form in continuous zones of permafrost

Question 113

closed system pingos

Answer 113

They form from downward growth of permafrost
On the site of small lakes, groundwater can be trapped by freezing from above and by the permafrost below as it moves inwards from lakeside
Subsequent freezing and expansion of the trapped water pushes the overlying sediments upwards into a pingo form

Question 114

loess

Answer 114

Many periglacial areas are characterized by extreme aridity because most of the water is frozen and not available for plant growth.
The absence of vegetation provides abundant opportunities for wind action
​Cold, strong winds pick up large amounts of material and redeposit it far from its source
In north-west China loess cover large areas and in some places are over 300 metres deep
Similar processes occur in the Gobi Desert today, forming loess in northern China – meaning this Aeolian process is not unique to periglacial environments

Question 115

how is glacier ice formed

Answer 115

Glacier ice is primarily formed from compacted snow, with smaller contributions from other precipitation such as hail and sleet, which freeze directly on top of or inside the glacier.​

Question 116

how is neve or fern formed

Answer 116

Snow falls and collects on the glacier. Fresh layers of snow fall each day and build up.​
As snow becomes compacted it starts freezing together becoming quite granular – this is called granular snow
As the granular snow becomes increasingly compressed it forms névé or firn
As the snow layers increase and the process continues and layers become deeper. The névé (or firn) transforms into glacier ice

Question 117

what affects rate of accumulation and ablation

Answer 117

Amount of precipitation​
Average temperatures​
Levels of solar insolation
Levels of wind speeds​
Latitude​
Continentality​

Question 118

what is continentality

Answer 118

distance from the sea (seas/water are warmer influencing temperature around glaciers/permafrost)

Question 119

how does a positive regime affect glaciers

Answer 119

A positive regime is when the glacier is increasing in mass i.e. a usual situation would be accumulation exceeding ablation during the winter period.

Question 120

how does a negative regime affect glaciers

Answer 120

A negative regime is when the glacier is decreasing in mass i.e. when ablation exceeds accumulation during the summer. Glacier begins to think/shrink

Question 121

how do long term trends affect glacier health

Answer 121

Trends can be summarised over a decade from annual net balance
These long term trends determine the ‘health’ of a glacier and whether it will significantly advance or retreat and if thinning/retreating contributes to increased concerns over global sea level rises

Question 122

what % of the worlds ice masses are experiencing ‘rising trends’ in their net negative balances

Answer 122

75%

Question 123

what happens if their are changes in the level of inputs (accumulation) of a glacier

Answer 123

may cause instability within the glacial system
The system naturally responds to this instability in the form of feedback cycle

Question 124

what happens if the glacier system is balanced

Answer 124

inputs are the same as outputs, this is an equilibrium

Question 125

how does a negative feedback system act

Answer 125

acts to minimise the effect of new inputs in order to regain stability and equilibrium
E.g. if there is more snowfall, the glacier would advance (grow) meaning more ice would enter the ablation zone so more snowmelt would occur
This would mean that a balance would be gained whereby the input of snowfall would equal the output of snowmelt
The system remains balanced

Question 126

how does a positive feedback system

Answer 126

A positive feedback cycle amplifies the effects of an input which would cause a shift in the system
E.g. if a glacier has a positive mass balance and the glacier surface area is increasing, there will be an increase in ice albedo. This will cause a further reduction in air temperature, thus increasing accumulation and initiating a positive feedback cycle in which the glacier will continue to advance (this works the other way round too
The system will not be balanced

Question 127

whats a warm based glacier

Answer 127

occur in high altitude areas outside the polar regions e.g. the Alps. The temperature of the ice is often close to zero and mild summer temperatures cause melting

Question 128

whats a cold based glacier

Answer 128

These occur in polar glacial environments such as Greenland and Antarctica. These glaciers are frozen onto the bedrock below and melting only occurs on the surface in the summer months

Question 129

pressure melting point

Answer 129

This is the temperature at which the ice is on the verge of melting
On the surface of the glacier the PMP is normally 0°​
However this can be lower within a glacier due to the pressure (weight of the glacier)
This means that at the base of a glacier, ice can melt at below 0°C, allowing the ice to move with the help of melt water even if the air temperature is below freezing point

Question 130

movement of cold based glaciers

Answer 130

Not affected by pressure melting point (too cold)​
Polar (cold based) glaciers are frozen onto bedrock and only move under the influence of one process called Internal Deformation
n a polar glacier the ice crystals cause movement in two ways

Question 131

in a polar glacier what are the two ways ice chrystals move

Answer 131

inter granular movement
intra granular movement

Question 132

inter granular movement

Answer 132

individual ice crystals slip and slide over each other ​

Question 133

intra granular movement

Answer 133

ice crystals deform due to stress within the ice and eventually moves downhill under the influence of gravity. ​

Question 134

movement of warm based glaciers

Answer 134

Temperate (warm-based) glaciers reach the pressure melting point and therefore produce a great deal of meltwater, which lubricates and increases the rate of movement by a number of processes called basal slip
Basal slip can be subdivided into three processes: creep and regelation; extending and compressing flow; and surges

Question 135

how do temperate (warm based) glaciers move

Answer 135

move by basal slip and internal deformation

Question 136

how do polar (cold based) glaciers move

Answer 136

move by internal deformation

Question 137

basal slip

Answer 137

occurs when the base of a glacier is at the pressure melting point, which means meltwater is present and acts as a lubricant, enabling the glacier to slide more rapidly over the bedrock

Question 138

what further porcesses can basal slip be divided into

Answer 138

creep and regelation
extending and compressing flow
surges

Question 139

creep and regelation

Answer 139

basal slip is enhanced by obstacles on the valley floor
a large bedrock obstacle causes an increase in pressure which makes the ice plastically deform around the feature (creep)
smaller obstacles will cause pressure melting, increasing ice movement by basal slip
the ice refreezes on the downglacier (lee) side of the obstacle
the process of melting under pressure and refreezing is known as regelation

Question 140

extending and compressing flow

Answer 140

over steep slopes the rate of basal slip will increase and the ice will accelerate and thin
this is known as extending flow
over shallower slopes basal slip slows and and the ice decelerates and thickens, knwon as compressing flow

Question 141

surges

Answer 141

in these short lived events a glacier can advance substantially moving up to 100 times faster than normal
they have various causes (eg earthquakes) but most common is enhanced basal sliding triggered by the build up of meltwater at the ice-rock interface

Question 142

internal deformation

Answer 142

when the weight of the glacier ice and gravity causes ice chrystals to deform so the glacier moves downslope very slowly

Question 143

what factors affect movement of glaciers

Answer 143

altitude
gravity and gradient slope
ice mass/thickness
rock type
ice temperature
meltwater

Question 144

altitude

Answer 144

affects precipitation and temperature. Greater precipitation and lower temperatures increase the supply of snow and ice, and so its mass balance

Question 145

gravity and gradient slope

Answer 145

Gravity causes ice to move; the steeper the gradient, the faster it flows.​

Question 146

ice mass/thicnkess

Answer 146

the heavier/greater the mass the greater the pressure in the ice which causes faster movement

Question 147

rock type

Answer 147

if rock is permeable then meltwater may percolate through, slowing the movement of the glacier. If rocks are impermeable there will be more meltwater, causing the glacier to more quicker

Question 148

ice temperature

Answer 148

Colder ice moves slowly as it does not deform as easily and it stays stuck to the bedrock

Question 149

meltwater

Answer 149

the more meltwater there is the faster the movement as basal slippage increases.​

Question 150

what are the four glacial processes

Answer 150

erosion
entrainment
transport
sedimentation

Question 151

more glacial processes

Answer 151

plucking/quarrying
abrasion
crushing
basal melting

Question 152

plucking/quarrying

Answer 152

freeze thaw weathering with basal melt water​

Question 153

abrasion

Answer 153

rocks being transported scratch bedrock​

Question 154

crushing

Answer 154

direct fracturing of weak bedrock by the weight of the glacier, producing large angular rocks

Question 155

basal melting

Answer 155

meltwater causes fluvial erosion processes such as abrasion, hydraulic action, attrition and corrosion

Question 156

glacial landforms created

Answer 156

cirque
arete and pyrimidial peak
hanging valley
roche Mountonee
knock and lochan
crag and tail
glacial trough (U-shaped valley)

Question 157

cirque

Answer 157

A large rounded hollow high on the mountain side, eroded and deepened by plucking and abrasion​

Question 158

eg of a cirque

Answer 158

Cwm Idwal, Snowdonia​

Question 159

arete

Answer 159

An arête is a sharp ridge between two cirques.

Question 160

pyrimidial peak

Answer 160

A pyramidal peak is a pointed mountain peak between three or more cirques

Question 161

eg of an arete

Answer 161

Striding Edge, Lake District​

Question 162

pyramidial peak

Answer 162

A pyramidal peak is a pointed mountain peak between three or more cirques

Question 163

eg of a pyramdial peak

Answer 163

The Matterhorn, Alps​

Question 164

hanging valley

Answer 164

Formed from small tributary ‘V-shaped’ or ‘U shaped’ valleys high above the main glacier floor

Question 165

eg of a hanging valley

Answer 165

Pistyll Rhaeadr, Berwyn Mountains, Wales​

Question 166

roche mountonee

Answer 166

Bare rock on the valley floor with a smooth ‘stoss’ (up-side valley) and a jagged ‘lee’ (down-side valley.​

Question 167

eg of a roche mountennee

Answer 167

Lembert Dome, Yosemite National Park, California

Question 168

knock and lochan

Answer 168

A lowland area with alternating small rock hills (knock) and hollows, often containing small lakes (lochan)​

Question 169

eg of a knock and lochan

Answer 169

Shetland Islands, Scotland​

Question 170

crag and tail

Answer 170

A large mass of hard rock forms a steep ‘stoss’ with a gently sloping tail of deposited material

Question 171

eg of a crag and tail

Answer 171

Castle Rock, Edinburgh​

Question 172

glacial trough (U-shaped valley)

Answer 172

A steep-sided, flat-floored, straight valley

Question 173

eg of a glacial trough

Answer 173

Nant Ffrancon Valley, Snowdonia.​
ribbon lake-: Llyn Ogwen​

Question 174

what are the different scales of glacial landforms

Answer 174

macro scale
meso scale
micro scale

Question 175

macro scale

Answer 175

Large scale landforms, Around 1km or greater in size and form the major elements in a glaciated highland landscape

Question 176

meso scale

Answer 176

Medium-scale landforms largely found within macro features e.g. found on a valley floor.​

Question 177

micro scale

Answer 177

Small-scale landforms less than 1 m long e.g. striations​

Question 178

what are the 4 distinct types of glaciated landscapes

Answer 178

upland
lowland
active
relict

Question 179

upland

Answer 179

those at higher altitudes in hills and mountains

Question 180

lowland

Answer 180

Those at lower altitudes on valley floors and coastal plains

Question 181

active

Answer 181

Currently experiencing glaciation, active glacial processes and landform development.​

Question 182

relict

Answer 182

Are not currently characterised by glaciers but feature fossilised glacial landforms due to past glaciation

Question 183

what are the 4 glacial environments

Answer 183

sub glacial
ice marginal
proglacial
periglacial

Question 184

subglacial

Answer 184

the environment beneath the glacier ice
subject to immense pressure from the overlying weight of the ice; beneath temperate glaciers there may be large volumes of meltwater

Question 185

ice marginal

Answer 185

environments at the edge of the glacial ice where a combination of glacial and fluvioglacial processes occur

Question 186

proglacial

Answer 186

environments located at the front of a glacier, ice cap or ice sheet and dominated by fluvioglacial processes

Question 187

periglacial

Answer 187

environments near glaciers are dominated by freeze-thaw processes, but not charachterized by moving ice

Question 188

supraglacial

Answer 188

Mainly weathered material carried on top of the ice. ​

Question 189

englacial

Answer 189

Formally supraglacial material, but now buried by fresh snow and carried within the ice.​

Question 190

subglacial

Answer 190

Material carried below the ice

Question 191

what is till

Answer 191

Material deposited underneath ice

Question 192

what are erratics

Answer 192

Till could have been transported a long distance and deposited in areas with different geology. These contrasting rock fragments are known as erratics

Question 193

what is a moriane

Answer 193

generic term for landforms associated with the deposition of till from within, on top of, and below a glacier.​

Question 194

what are glacial depositional features

Answer 194

erratics
moraines
drumlins

Question 195

what are the 4 types of moraines

Answer 195

medial
lateral
recessional
terminal

Question 196

medial moraine

Answer 196

This is formed when lateral moraines from two merging glaciers join up – leaving a line of debris in the centre of the combine glacier’s flow. As the combined glaciers melt, the medial moraine is deposited to form a low ridge

Question 197

lateral moraine

Answer 197

A high and almost symmetrical ridge, formed along the outer edge of a glacier. It can be several metres high. Formed from freeze-thaw on the valley sides that causes the material to fall onto the edge of the glacier below

Question 198

recessional moraine

Answer 198

Retreating glaciers may experience periods of stability, when a secondary ridge of sediment forms at the snout. This has the same characteristics as terminal moraine, but doesn’t mark the furthest extent of the ice

Question 199

terminal moraine

Answer 199

A ridge of sediment piled up at the furthest extent of an advancing glacier. It commonly appears as a line of hills (rather than a solid ridge) due to the erosive action of meltwater streams from the retreating glacier

Question 200

what is a drumlin

Answer 200

A typical drumlin is an oval or ‘egg-shaped’ hill made up of glacial till and aligned in the direction of ice flow

Question 201

how big are drumlins

Answer 201

They can vary in size but are commonly between 30-50 metres high and 500-1000 metres long

Question 202

where are drumlins found

Answer 202

They usually occur in clusters or ‘swarms’ on flat valley floors or lowland plains and forming ‘basket of eggs’ topography

Question 203

how are drumlins thought to be formed

Answer 203

controversy over their formation. Although some have a rocky core (with sediment moulded around it), most do not. Some partly consist of fluvial sediments as well as glacial till, suggesting that meltwater played a part in their formation

Question 204

how big are erratics

Answer 204

Erratics are so called because they are of a different rock type to the bedrock in they sit on
Huge erratic boulders weighing up to 16,000 tonnes were carried over 300km from the Canadian Rockies to the plains of Alberta by the Cordilleran Ice Sheet

Question 205

lowland depositional features

Answer 205

till plain
lodgement till
ablation till

Question 206

till plains

Answer 206

Formed when a large section of ice detaches from the main body of the glacier and melts. The suspended debris will be deposited and form a large plain of unsorted till

Question 207

lodgement till

Answer 207

Lodgement is a process that occurs beneath the ice mass when subglacial debris that was being transported becomes ‘lodged’ or stuck on the glacier bed
Lodgement occurs when the friction between the subglacial debris and the bed becomes greater than the drag of the ice moving over it
commonly associated with glaciers carrying huge loads of debris and where the glacier is very slow moving, if not static

Question 208

ablation till

Answer 208

Ablation till is material that has been dumped as the glacier melts and thaws. It can include material that has travelled within the glacier at any point i.e. supraglacial; englacial; and subglacial

Question 209

what is a till fabric analysis

Answer 209

used to indicate the direction of a former glacial advance
Material tends to lie parallel to the direction of ice movement

Question 210

how does glacial meltwater behave

Answer 210

in the same way as a river

Question 211

whats a glacial outburst

Answer 211

Occasionally, a huge amount of meltwater becomes trapped, either beneath the ice or as surface lakes. When these eventually burst (called a glacial outburst), the surging meltwater has the power to carve deep channels or gorges

Question 212

fluvio glacial processes

Answer 212

Meltwater travels in the same places material travels in a glacier system: supraglacial; englacial and sub-glacial channels
Meltwater discharged from supraglacial and sub-glacial streams is higher during the summer months

Question 213

what are the two types of fluvio glacial landforms

Answer 213

ice contact features
pro-glacial features

Question 214

fluvio glacial landforms

Answer 214

kame
sandur
esker
kettle hole
kame terrace
meltwater channel
proglacial lake

Question 215

compared to glacial deposits (till) what are fluvioglacial deposits like

Answer 215

Generally smaller due to energy of meltwater
Generally smoother and rounder
Are sorted horizontally
Stratified vertically with distinctive layers which reflect either seasonal or annual sediment accumulation​
glacial till is more angular, poorly sorted and non-stratified

Question 216

fluvial deposit charachteristics

Answer 216

stratification
sorting
imbrication
grading

Question 217

cultural value

Answer 217

relates to the ideas and behaviour of society.​

Question 218

environmental value

Answer 218

biotic (living) and abiotic (non-living) things around us

Question 219

environmental values of glaciated landscapes

Answer 219

water cycling
climate control
carbon cycle
weather system control
fragile ecosystems
carbon sequestration
genetic diversity

Question 220

cultural value of glaciated landscapes

Answer 220

spiritual and religous inspiration
leisure and recreation opportunities eg skiing
native people with distinct cultures
scientific research ie core analysis

Question 221

econmic value of glaciated landscapes

Answer 221

The majority of active and periglacial landscapes can be classified as ‘true wilderness’ as they are remote, possess a harsh physical environment and carry little or no population
Relict landscapes on the other hand e.g. the Lake District, are often more densely populated as they provide many more opportunities for economic development and employment

Question 222

factors of economic importance of glaciated landscapes

Answer 222

farming
forestry
mining and quarrying
tourism
hydroelectricity

Question 223

farming

Answer 223

In developing country’s, mountainous regions suffer from limitations in transport links, access to essential supplies and markets and employment opportunities In countries such as Nepal, Bolivia (Altiplano) and Ethiopia (Bale Mountains), the highlands are largely inhabited by indigenous communities who gain their living from subsistence farming (growing crops to feed themselves). ​

In Bolivia 70% of people live in the High Andes, growing crops such as potatoes, quinoa and beans to feed themselves, as well as rearing llamas and alpacas, yet they only earn 30% of the country’s GDP. Almost all of the 60% of Bolivia’s population living below the poverty line are indigenous Indians living in the Altiplano of the High Andes. ​
n Alpine areas in developed countries, the agriculture in upland glaciated regions is primarily pastoral (livestock) because of the above-average precipitation, rugged terrain with steep slopes and stony, shallow soils, which together make growing crops very difficult. In the truly Alpine areas a traditional farming system is used to take advantage of the seasonal climate cycle – in summer animals are grazed at high altitudes on Alpine meadows, which become free from snow and provide high quality grass – at the same time, the grass in the valley bottom can be made into hay for winter feed which is used when the animals are brought down in the winter.​

Question 224

tourism

Answer 224

tourist industry has seen a large increase in recent decades, which has brought many economic benefits to mountainous regions, with visitors attracted to the spectacular scenery of both present-day and relict glaciated landscapes. A huge range of year-round, outdoor activities are possible in Alpine landscapes such as hill walking, climbing, mountaineering and skiing. Thanks to long haul travel and modern communications, mass tourism is not only affecting traditional areas such as the Swiss Alps but also affecting more remote polar regions in the Arctic (Alaska, Greenland and Iceland) and Antarctic (South Georgia and the Antarctic Peninsula). Other developing areas are: Everest base camp and ascent, Nepal; Franz Josef and Fox Glaciers, New Zealand for guided walks, heli-rides and heli-skiing on the glaciers; and Mer de Glace, Chamonix French Alps to get the cable car to Aiguille du Midi for glacier viewing and hiking as well as visiting the ice cave beneath the glacier

Question 225

forestry

Answer 225

Upland areas are being used increasingly for forestry due to the difficulty to use the land for hill farming. In the UK this is carried out by the Forestry Commission and private investors , with the main type of tree being non-native, quick growing conifers such as Sitka spruce, grown for softwood timber, wood pulp and even paper. Conifers tolerate harsh climates and acidic soils that would not be suitable for other land uses

Question 226

mining and quarrying

Answer 226

Glacial erosion plays an important role in removing regolith (loose overlying soil)and vegetation to expose economically valuable rocks. In many active or relict areas there are mines ad quarries of mineral deposits and ores, as well as rocks such as slates as many of the glaciated mountains are made from igneous and metamorphic rocks
n lowland areas, outwash deposits from the Pleistocene Ice Sheets provide a very important source of sand and gravel for the building industry, pre-sorted by meltwater into sands and gravels to be sold as aggregates, making them very useful for making concrete

Question 227

hydroelectricity

Answer 227

Hydroelectric power (HEP)is a major use of water derived from glaciers. Both Norway and New Zealand derive over 90% of their electricity from this source. In most cases either a natural ribbon lake or a dam and reservoir in a glaciated valley provide HEP
Switzerland has over 500 HEP stations producing some 70% of its electricity. Clearly HEP is a renewable ‘green’ source, although there are issues with both the reliability of water supply and environmental concerns over damming rivers. In mountain settlements in developing nations, such as Nepal and Bolivia , micro-hydros can revolutionise the quality of life in many villages

Question 228

arctic tundra (periglacial environment) conditions

Answer 228

Tundra plants have to adapt to low temperatures, drying winds and snow blasts in winter blizzards
The Arctic is a harsh environment, with long, dark winters and short summers. The growing season only lasts for 3 months – when average temperatures rise to 12˚C

Question 229

arctic tundra ecosystem

Answer 229

Vegetation occurs in periglacial areas that aren’t covered in ice, both in high latitudes (Arctic) and high altitude (Alpine), covering around 8 million km2 of the Earth’s surface

Question 230

vegertation in lower arctic latitudes (70-75N)

Answer 230

Continuous cover of ground vegetation including sedges and mosses in the wetter hollows and scattered dwarf trees (elder and birches) on the lower ridges.​
Elsewhere heaths, grasses and rapidly flowering plants flourish

Question 231

vegetation cover in higher arctic latitudes (75-80N) and higher altitudes

Answer 231

Polar desert conditions prevail
However, a small range of plants survive in favourable sheltered locations such as the purple saxifrage and the arctic poppy

Question 232

acrtic tundra ecosystem in summer

Answer 232

The surface layer of permafrost melts to form bogs and shallow lakes
These attract insects, which in turn attract migrating birds
The tundra also supports a variety of larger animals such as the Arctic Fox, grey wolves, snow geese and musk oxen

Question 233

arctic tundra ecosystem in winter

Answer 233

Temperatures fall well below freezing
Plants – which many animals rely on for food – must survive under the snow to re-remerge and flower quickly once temperatures rise again in the spring

Question 234

how is the water cycle maintained through the tundra

Answer 234

Water storage – approximately 75% of all the freshwater of the world is locked up in ice – glaciers contain nearly 2% of all water overall
During the summer months, meltwater provides a water source for settlements down stream, creating storage in lakes and rivers. For example, the Alps known as the ‘water towers of Europe’ transport an average of 216km3 of water a year to nearby regions

Question 235

what is arctic amplification

Answer 235

The Arctic region is now warming twice as fast as the global average, this phenomenon is known as Arctic Amplification
This is a positive feedback loop

Question 236

how is the carbon cycle maintained through the tundra

Answer 236

The extensive areas of permafrost and tundra peat are major areas for soil carbon and methane storage – as much as 14% of the Earth’s carbon is stored in permafrost
Currently the Arctic remains a carbon sink – meaning it absorbs more carbon than it releases. This happens because the cold climate limits decomposition of organic matter

Question 237

how can periglacial environments create a negative feedback loop for the carbon cycle

Answer 237

Not all scientists agree that the melting permafrost will release carbon dioxide and methane
As permafrost thaws, carbon could remain in the soil to be used by new vegetation

Question 238

how can periglacial environments create posotive feedback loops for the carbon cycle

Answer 238

as permafrost thaws it could release these gases, contributing to atmospheric greenhouse gas levels

Question 239

what did scientists in Alaska’s Arctic Long Term Ecological Research Site find in relation to the carbon cycle

Answer 239

set up artificial warming plots over 20 years, and found increased growth of shrubs at the expense of mosses, sedges and grasses
Measurements show no change in the amount of carbon below ground, which means that carbon released due to melting permafrost has been balanced by carbon in puts into the soil as a result of more plant growth and the decomposition of plant litter

Question 240

natural and human threats to glaciers

Answer 240

Both current glaciated and relict upland regions are hazardous
Human activities can also degrade and damage fragile glacial and periglacial environments and ecosystems

Question 241

natural threats

Answer 241

rock falls
avalanches
debris slides
glacial outburst floods

Question 242

human threats

Answer 242

leisure and tourism
reservoir construction
urbanisation

Question 243

avalanches

Answer 243

An avalanche exists where sheer stress exceeds sheer strength of a mass of snow located on a slope. While avalanches tend to follow well-known tracks and can often be predicted, they are nevertheless a significant hazard, usually killing around 200 people per year with most of these deaths in the Alps and the Rockies

Question 244

glacial outburst floods

Answer 244

A glacial outburst flood is a powerful flood caused by the sudden discharge of a subglacial or ice moraine dammed lake. There is potential for an outburst flood whenever meltwater collects behind an ice or moraine obstruction. These very large floods are a huge threat to people and property in inhabited mountain valleys

Question 245

leisure and tourism

Answer 245

Resorts in glaciated regions, particularly ski resorts attract large amounts of people each year, for example Zermatt in Switzerland attracts 2 million visitors per year. At the height of the ski season the resident population in Zermatt can be as high as 35,000. This creates a huge demand for energy and water and threatens environmental degradation due to urbanisation, increased noise and vehicle emissions and the expansion of ski areas

Question 246

reservoir construction

Answer 246

As glaciers store 69% of the world’s fresh water, many countries are tapping into this source, especially due to fears of summer water shortages due to glacial retreat. Within the Chinese side of the Tibetan Plateau there are nearly 37,000 glaciers, containing the largest volume of ice outside the polar regions and also giving birth to many rivers across Asia including the Ganges. Almost 2 billion people in more than a dozen countries depend on these ice fed rivers. China aims to build 59 reservoirs to capture and save the glacial run off for the future. Reservoir construction would require intense, heavy machinery and the clearing of land as well as irreversible damage to wildlife

Question 247

urbanisation

Answer 247

Traditionally, the development of settlements in relict glaciated areas has been for agricultural purposes, however in polar environments this is not the reason. Settlements in polar regions tend to be surrounded by nothing and tend to be built for resource exploitation purposes including whaling, mining and fishing. Inevitably there are issues with pollution and toxic waste as well as conflicts occurring between these outsiders and the native people. Regular contact from outsiders has reduced the chances of survival of traditional culture groups e.g. the Inuit in Greenland

Question 248

what 4 problems does rising visitor numbers in more extreme environments cause

Answer 248

soil erosion
deforestation
trampling
landslides

Question 249

what type of landscape is the lake disrtict

Answer 249

a relict glaciated landscape

Question 250

how many footpaths are there in the lake district

Answer 250

almost 200 miles to support the 16 million visitors each year

Question 251

how is the lake district under threat

Answer 251

both the landscape and ecology of the Lake District are fragile and under threat from overuse.
Activities such as walking, climbing and camping can lead to footpath erosion, trampling and littering, which challenges the areas resilience

Question 252

how can walkers create issues in the lake district

Answer 252

Walkers destroy vegetation and compact soil, which reduces infiltration rates
The exposed soil is also more easily washed away by heavy rain (rainfall is high in the Lake District)​
Gullies may then form along footpaths, which channel even more water and cause further erosion.
When walkers try to avoid badly eroded sections of footpath, they inevitably end up widening them
Increased storms (as a result of climate change) are likely to worsen the problem

Question 253

how many visitors does the lake district have each year

Answer 253

over 16 million

Question 254

how does the local economy of the lake district benefit well from tourism

Answer 254

local economy benefits hugely from this influx, for example in 2014, visitors spent about £1.1 billion, which helped support local businesses
Many services that benefit tourists also benefit local people e.g. better public transport and roads). Some of the money tourists bring in is also used to protect the environment that visitors come to see.​

Question 255

how many jobs does tourism provide in national parks

Answer 255

Tourism provides over 16,000 jobs in the National park, as well as boosting the local economy through the multiplier effect

Question 256

what is the multiplier effect

Answer 256

the ways in which development creates an upward spiral, so that investment and spending both increases employment and leads to further economic activity. ​

Question 257

what is the sagamartha national park

Answer 257

includes Mount Everest. It’s an active glaciated area with a fragile ecosystem. It is a destination for mountain tourism and is home to over 6000 Sherpa* people. It has an enormous environmental and cultural value, but faces a range of threats. ​

Question 258

what are the threats to the sagamartha national park

Answer 258

tourism
climate change and shrinking glaciers
avalanches
deforestation and landslides

Question 259

why has deforestation been caused in sagamartha national park

Answer 259

farming
use of firewood as fuel
clearing forested areas to build roads, reservoirs etc

Question 260

what has happened in sagamartha national park as a rresult of deforestation

Answer 260

less than 30% of Nepal forests remains

Question 261

what are the consequences of deforestation in sagamartha national park

Answer 261

Loss of wildlife habitats and biodiversity​
Erosion of exposed soils leading to infertile soil as nutrients are washed away
Increased risk of landslides
Disruption of the water cycle​

Question 262

whats happened with tourism in sagarmatha national park

Answer 262

tourist industry in the Park is largely in the hands of the Sherpa people
Tourism has boosted the local economy, leading to improved standards of living, better healthcare, education and infrastructure

Question 263

environmental damage and socio economic change in sagamartha national park as a result of the tourist industry

Answer 263

Footpath erosion and the construction of illegal trails​
Water pollution​
Problems with waste disposal​
Increased demand for forest products as well as new hotels and lodges
Changes to the Sherpa way of life

Question 264

what is happening to most of the worlds current glaciers

Answer 264

are retreating

Question 265

how much ice mass have glaciers on the eastern slopes of the rocky mountains lost

Answer 265

between 25 and 75% of their mass since 1850.​

Question 266

whats happened to glaciers in Tajikstan, central asia

Answer 266

1949 in Tajikistan, Central Asia, glaciers covered 18,500km2 of land: in 2012 they covered only 11,000km2, a decrease of 38%

Question 267

what % of the himalayan glaciers are in rapid retreat

Answer 267

85% of the Himalayan glaciers are in rapid retreat: e.g. the Khumba Glacier (one of the highest in the world at the base of Everest) has retreated over 5km since 1953.​

Question 268

areas in Peru and Bolivia covered by glaciers shrunk by what % over the last 30 years

Answer 268

25%

Question 269

what are the 4 changes to the hydrological cycle that could impact glacial recession

Answer 269

meltwater
river discharge
sediment yield
water quality

Question 270

do receeding glaciers produce more or less meltwater

Answer 270

more

Question 271

what affect does increasing meltwater have on rivers

Answer 271

lot of cases glaciers feed rivers, for example rivers in Asia such as the Mekong (flows through Laoes, Thailand, Vietnam, China, Cambodia and Myanmar), Yangzte (China), Brahmaputra (India), Ganges (India) and Hwange Ho (China) are all fed by Himalayan glacial meltwater. An increase in meltwater means a loss of a steady supply in the future, which for the rivers mentioned could have huge implications for China and India’s populations. In India the reduction of glacial meltwater flowing into the Ganges-Brahmaputra system is likely to result in at least 500 million people facing water shortages, with nearly 40% of India’s irrigated land being affected. ​

Question 272

effect of increasing meltwater

Answer 272

increase in meltwater could cause an increase in glacial outburst floods as deposited moraine can create glacial lakes which continue to increase in size until the moraine wall collapses, causing a catastrophic flood

Question 273

what did a glacial outburst flood cause in 1985

Answer 273

a 10-15 metre high surge of water and debris to flood down the Bhote Koshi and Dudh Koshi rivers in Nepal – destroying amongst many things the Namche Small Hydro Project

Question 274

how is river dishcarge effected by meltwater

Answer 274

Due to an increase in meltwater and the potential for more glacial outburst floods, river discharge will inevitably also be affected

Question 275

why do dicharge and meltwater increase during the summer

Answer 275

During the summer months where glacial ablation is at the highest during the year, meltwater and therefore discharge will increase – which will also increase sediment yield. An increased amount of sediment would mean water would increasingly become cloudy and sediment-laden, affecting the water quality. ​

Question 276

whats a stakeholder

Answer 276

People who are affected by or have an interest in something

Question 277

stakeholders for glaciated landscapes

Answer 277

conservationists
local and regional governments
global organisations
NGO’s (non-governmental organisations)

Question 278

how are the challenges and conflicts posed by glacial landscapes managed

Answer 278

using a spectrum of management approaches
left end- do nothing total exploitation
middle-sustainable exploitation
right end- total protection no exploitation

Question 279

total exploitation

Answer 279

This is maximum economic exploitation without any protection of the natural environment. This is often the preferred approach of business and industry where there are large reserves of minerals, metals or fossil fuels that require open cast mining or large scale infrastructure. It causes significant conflict with conservationists and native people, who often depend on the natural landscape and live in harmony with it.

Question 280

eg of total exploitation

Answer 280

There are concerns that the Russian government will favour total exploitation of the Yamal Peninsula for gas, which could result in considerable environmental and cultural degradation. ​

Question 281

sustainable exploitation

Answer 281

This approach aims to find a balance between the need for resource exploitation and economic growth, and the need to conserve the natural environmental and indigenous cultures. It aims to take into account the interests of all stakeholders to reduce conflict, but this means it relies on compromise, which is often difficult to achieve.

Question 282

eg of sustainable exploitation

Answer 282

The Alpine Convention is a legislative framework that aims to achieve sustainable management of the European Alps. ​

Question 283

total protection

Answer 283

The aim is this approach is to completely conserve the natural environment, maintaining pristine conditions; the only form of exploitation may be limited scientific research and, possibly, carefully regulated tourism (such as eco-tourism). This approach is usually supported by conservationists, but may causes conflict with local people, businesses, industries and governments who wish to increase economic productivity through resource exploitation. Therefore this approach is most feasible in remote locations, which are either uninhabited or sparsely population, for example Antarctica, The North East of Greenland National Park and the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska. It is enforced by national or international legal frameworks, such as the Antarctica Treaty.

Question 284

eg of legislative frameworks on an international scale

Answer 284

The Antarctic Treaty​

Question 285

the antarctic treaty

Answer 285

Established Antarctic as a continent of peace and science, and set all pre-existing territorial claims of seven countries to one side.​

Question 286

how many countries signed the Antarctic treaty

Answer 286

Signed by 60 countries, representing 89% of the world’s people

Question 287

positives of the antarctic treaty

Answer 287

Protects effectively by strict rules​
No exploitation of the land
Support from 60+ countries​

Question 288

negatives of the antarctic treaty

Answer 288

Disagreements could occur​
Some countries aren’t signed up​
More land claimed by some countries than others – more pressure for these countries not to use their ‘chunk’​
Tourisms still allowed, trust in travel companies and education of tourists on how to protect area.​

Question 289

another example of legislative framework on an international scale

Answer 289

The Alpine Convention​

Question 290

the alpine convention

Answer 290

Part of the sustainable approach is to reduce carbon emissions
E.g. In Arosa, Switzerland an offsetting scheme for carbon emissions has been set up, this is to offset emissions generated by tourists. Tourists fill in a questionnaire

Question 291

positives of the alpine convention

Answer 291

Combines multiple countries who are working towards the same goal
Aims to create a balance between exploitation and protection
Tackles climate change​

Question 292

negatives of the alpine convention

Answer 292

Tourists still allowed to visit area​
Not all countries have ratified all of the protocols​
Disagreements between communities about the lack of responsibility they have. ​

Question 293

eg of legislative framework on a local level

Answer 293

Zermatt switzerland

Question 294

posotives of zermatt switzerland

Answer 294

Car free areas​
use of renewable energy​
Water reused ​
Wildlife sanctuaries​
Revegetating plants – covered 85% of priority areas​

Question 295

negatives of zermatt switzerland

Answer 295

Local scale​
Feared further degradation due to tourist numbers​
Conflict between tourists and local people​
Only on a local scale​