Carbon Flashcards
(284 cards)
1
Q
What type of system is the biogeochemical carbon cycle?
A
Closed
2
Q
What timescale does the biogeochemical carbon cycle sequester carbon?
A
Short
3
Q
What is the amount of carbon measured in in the biogeochemical carbon cycle?
A
Petagrams = 1 trillion kg
4
Q
What does the biogeochemical carbon cycle roughly mean?
A
Carbon is exchanged between the hydrosphere, lithosphere, biosphere, and atmosphere.
5
Q
What are the two long term carbon stores?
A
Crustal/terrestrial geological (sedimentary rocks recycled over millennia) and the deep oceanic store (most carbon is dissolved inorganic carbon stored at great depths).
6
Q
How much carbon is in the deep oceanic store?
A
38,000 petagrams
7
Q
What are the 4 short term carbon stores?
A
- Terrestrial soil (from plant matter/biomass and microorganisms break this down to CO2 in a process that takes days in hot, humid climates and decades in colder climates).
- Surface oceanic (exchanges are rapid with the atmosphere due to physical processes such as CO2 gas dissolving in the water and biological processes such as plankton’s actions).
- Atmospheric (CO2 and CH4 store greenhouse gases with a lifetime of up to 100 years. Some goes to deep oceanic).
- Terrestrial ecosystems (CO2 taken to the atmosphere by plant photosynthesis and carbon is stored organically especially in trees with a rapid interchange with the atmosphere over seconds and minutes).
8
Q
How much is in the crustal/terrestrial geological long term store?
A
100 million plus an extra 4000 with fossil fuels.
9
Q
How much is in the terrestrial soil short term store?
A
1500 petagrams
10
Q
How much is in the surface oceanic short term store?
A
1000 petagrams
11
Q
How much is in the atmosphere short term store?
A
560 petagrams
12
Q
How much is in the terrestrial ecosystems short term store?
A
560 petagrams
13
Q
What are the exchanges of stores over a yearly timescale called?
A
Annual flux
14
Q
What is equilibrium in the carbon cycle?
A
Sources = sinks
15
Q
What may changes in the carbon cycle result in?
A
Negative or positive feedback
16
Q
What is the largest carbon store?
A
Crustal/geological terrestrial sedimentary rocks
17
Q
What is the largest flux and how much?
A
Photosynthesis which takes in 123 PgC of carbon.
18
Q
What does the atmosphere contain?
A
CO2 and methane (CH4)
19
Q
What does the hydrosphere have?
A
Water as dissolved CO2
20
Q
What does the lithosphere have?
A
Carbonates in limestone and fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and gas.
21
Q
What does the biosphere contain?
A
Carbon in living and dead organisms.
22
Q
What are the 4 key daily basis processes of the biogeochemical carbon cycle?
A
Photosynthesis, respiration, decomposition (animals release co2 into soils and the ocean floor, and combustion (through fossil fuels and natural processes such as forest fires releasing carbon).
23
Q
What is the second largest store and why?
A
Oceans holding 60 times more carbon than the atmosphere.
24
Q
How much CO2 in the sea is stored in undersea algae, plants, coral, and phytoplankton and what is the rest stored as?
A
93% and the rest is dissolved.
25
The colder the water...
The more carbon stored, meaning this store is influenced a lot by climate change.
26
How does carbon cycle in the ocean through the physical pump?
- Vertically through the upwelling and downwelling of water.
- Horizontally through thermohaline circulation.
27
What is thermohaline circulation?
The global system of surface and deep water currents driven by temperature and salinity that creates differences in areas of oceans and is key as the cold water moves carbon dioxide.
28
How does the thermohaline circulation system move in northern vs southern hemisphere?
Clockwise in northern hem and anticlockwise in southern hem.
29
What are the five steps of thermohaline circulation?
- Begins in polar oceans where water is very cold and sea ice forms, meaning the surrounding ice becomes saltier, increases in density, and sinks.
- Current rechanged as it passes Antarctica by extra cold dense and salty water.
- Division of the main current as there is northward to the Indian ocean and south towards the western pacific.
- Two branches warm and rise as they travel northward then loop back south and westward.
- The now warmed surface waters continue circulating around the globe on their eventual return to the north Atlantic when they cool and their cycle begins again.
30
What is a major ocean current in the THC and what does it do?
Northern Atlantic drift (gulf stream) moves the warm waters from the tropics to the pole, absorbing more CO2 as it gets denser and cools moving downwards.
31
What is an important role in regulating the composition of the atmosphere?
Ocean and terrestrial photosynthesis.
32
How is soil health, which is influenced by carbon, influential to ecosystem productivity?
Biological carbon is stored as dead organic matter in soil and returned in decomposition. The organic matter/biomass gives nutrients to the soil such as nitrates for growth and lack of organic matter can lead to soil erosion and water insecurity.
33
How much of solar radiation reaching the earth is captured by photosynthesis and used by plants to produce organic matter called biomass?
About 1%.
34
What is the name for the rate in which plants produce biomass?
Primary productivity.
35
What is the name for the amount of biomass minus the energy lost through respiration?
Net primary productivity.
36
What is the highest storing carbon ecosystem?
Boreal forests because they are evergreen trees which photosynthesize all year round and moist soils which have lots of decomposition because of all the organic matter too.
37
What do healthy and carbon rich soils look like? x6
- Dark and crumbly.
- Worms and organisms.
- Organic matter.
- Provide air, water, and nutrients for microorganisms.
- Retain moisture.
- Improve resilience to wetter weather by enabling infiltration and percolation to reduce flood risk and soil erosion risk.
38
What biome has the highest net primary productivity and why?
Tropical rainforests due to moist and high temperature and rain for plants to grow all year round and be decomposed and more biomass and photosynthesis.
39
What biome has the lowest NPP and why?
Tundra because there is low sunlight meaning less photosynthesis and too cold for biomass.
40
How much gigatons of carbon is stored in soil and what is this compared to the plants and the atmosphere?
Over 2,700 gigatonnes which is more than all the carbon stored in plants and atmosphere.
41
Why do peat bogs store so much carbon?
The carbon the living peatland plants capture from the air through photosynthesis becomes trapped due to the waterlogged, anaerobic or oxygen lacking conditions.
42
What is the albedo effect?
When darker places absorb more solar radiation and lighter surfaces reflect it back to the atmosphere.
43
How much cooler would the earth be without the greenhouse effect?
18 degrees.
44
What could a 2 degree warming lead to?
- 10 million more people lose homes to the rising sea.
- 2 million square km of permafrost lost.
- 50% increase in global population experiencing water scarcity.
- 50% increase in species losing half their geographical range.
45
When did the UK cut all coal use?
September 2024.
46
How fast is Arctic warming?
Twice as fast as the rest of the world due to the white surface ice having dark surfaces underneath causing the albedo effect.
47
What are three examples of greenhouse gases and their global warming potential index score?
- CO2: 1
- Methane (CH4): 23
- Nitrous oxide (N2O): 296
48
What is global warming potential index score?
Index to measure how much infrared thermal radiation a greenhouse gas would absorb over a given time frame after it has been added to the atmosphere.
49
What is a tipping point?
Critical threshold in a system that when exceeded can lead to a significant change in the system.
50
How much hotter is the atmosphere today than pre-industrial times?
1.36 degrees.
51
How much has sea level risen in the last 100 years?
6-8 inches.
52
How does deforestation contribute to climate change?
They are carbon sinks and sequester carbon through photosynthesis and cutting them down and burning them makes them release the CO2 they sequestered as well as encouraging a hotter drier climate due to limited umbrella effect
53
How much are sea levels expected to rise by the end of the century?
2m higher in 2100 than 2000.
54
Why is methane such a problematic greenhouse gas?
It is 80 times more harmful than CO2 even 20 years after its released.
55
What did the Paris Agreement say?
Limit the temperature rise to 1.5 degrees Celsius.
56
What is the cheapest form of renewable energy generation in more than 60 countries in 2021?
Solar energy.
57
How much of the UK electricity is generated from renewable sources in 2024?
56.1%.
58
What is the average carbon footprint of people in the UK?
11.7 tonnes of CO2 equivalent.
59
What makes a country more energy secure?
- A range of sources.
- More sustainable and less finite sources such as fossil fuels.
- Trading energy sources so interconnected from abroad for good international relations.
- Infrastructure to connect buildings to energy sources.
- Resources in a country such as sunlight or oil reserves.
- Money for technology.
60
What is the energy mix for less developed countries?
Biomass and waste such as wood and dung because it is cheap.
61
What is energy mix?
The proportion of each primary energy resource a country uses in a year including domestic and imported energy.
62
What is the general energy mix of emerging countries?
They have a growth of transport and mass car ownership so oil will rise and in some higher developed countries can shift towards some other methods like nuclear in China.
63
What is the energy mix of developed countries?
Oil remains high due to transport fuel but coal has declined due to pollution and replaced with cheaper gas.
64
What is the UK's energy mix in 2022?
Gas is the largest with 39.4%, nuclear is 8.1%, and biofuels and waste is 8.9% with hydro at 0.3% being the smallest.
65
What is Norway's energy mix for 2022?
Highest is hydro at 38.5% and highest non-renewable is oil at 25%.
66
What happened in Norway that changed their energy mixes?
'Policy for change' in 2016 where they committed to a 40% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. aim to be carbon neutral by 2050
67
What are the 7 energy players and what do they do?
- Consumers that exert pressure on politicians.
- Governments that change the national energy mix and renewable policies and subsidies.
- Generators and distributors providing vital infrastructure such as the national grid or power stations.
- Environmentalists pressure government to adopt renewables and reduce carbon intensity through campaigns.
- OPEC plays a key role in oil price and managing production.
- Scientists and researchers develop alternative fuels and applications.
- Energy TNCs explore for reserves, exploit, refine, and distribute oil.
68
What is OPEC and what is its degree of influence?
Very high - 12 country members protect political interests, stabilize prices by controlling production, and eliminate harmful price fluctuations so there is a large flow of consumers. it controls the worlds oil reserves.
69
What importance are governments as an energy player and why?
High as some exercise sound stewardship and investment strategies like Norway and their policy for change. govs can force TNCs to share developments such as eastern siberia having bp and shell
70
What is the role and degree of influence of TNCs on distribution and supply of energy?
High in terms of expertise and large range of countries they hold. they can however only adapt to countries rules such as shell operating in the niger delta in nigeria
71
Who was the top oil producer and share of world's oil in 2023?
USA, producing over 21 million barrels a day and sharing 22% of the world's total.
72
Who is second for oil producer and share of world's oil in 2023?
China, with over 11 million barrels per day and 11% of the world's total share.
73
Why is China second for oil?
It has a large population so it is a net importer and imports for themselves and to sell
74
What is the reasoning for mismatch between locations of fossil fuel supply and demand?
- Formed many years ago under specific conditions meaning only limited countries have it.
- Level of development affects the ability to access resources and demand.
- lack of resources have peaked in some countries like japan which supply outrips the resources in other countries such as saudi arabia
75
What are energy pathways?
When fossil fuels are transported from one place to another but there can often be disruptions.
76
What are four resources for unconventional fossil fuels?
- Tar sands.
- Oil shale.
- Shale gas.
- Deepwater oil.
77
What are tar sands and how are they extracted?
A mixture of clay, sand, water, and bitumen that must be mined and injected with steam to make the tar less viscous.
78
What is oil shale and how is it extracted?
Oil-bearing rocks that are permeable enough to allow the oil to be pumped out directly.
79
What is shale gas and how is it extracted?
Natural gas trapped in fine-grained sedimentary rocks and extracted through fracking.
80
What is deepwater oil and how to extract it?
Oil and gas found offshore at considerable oceanic depths, drilled from ocean rigs.
81
What is happening in the Canadian tar sands?
In northeastern Alberta, the Athabasca oil sands contain 2.3 trillion barrels of oil which is more than Saudi Arabias reserves.
82
What are arguments for unconventional abstraction in the Canadian tar sands?
- Meet 16% of North USA's oil needs.
- Improves energy security.
- Provides income and tax revenue for local and national economies.
- Using money from this to research and develop renewable energy.
83
What are arguments against unconventional abstraction in the Canadian tar sands?
- For every barrel extracted, they have to use enough natural gas to heat a family home for 4 days.
- Have to tear up 4 tonnes of landscape of oil which is a regulator of climate by storing carbon.
- 1.8 mil tonnes of toxic wastewater produced from this every day
84
What does the Canadian tar sands provide for economies?
It provides income and tax revenue for local and national economies.
85
What is one argument against unconventional abstraction in the Canadian tar sands?
For every barrel extracted, they have to use enough natural gas to heat a family home for 4 days.
86
What is a third argument against unconventional abstraction in the Canadian tar sands?
Although it provides jobs in the community of Conklin, most of them live in campervans and poor quality homes with no water and heating as most natives take the jobs.
87
What is a fourth argument against unconventional abstraction in the Canadian tar sands?
Just under 1/3rd of the community lives in substandard housing.
88
What is produced every day from the Canadian tar sands?
About 1.8 million tonnes of toxic wastewater.
89
What is peak oil?
It is the point in time where we reach the maximum rate of petroleum extraction and production before it enters terminal decline.
90
Who are the key players in the Canadian tar sands?
Exploration companies, environmental groups, affected communities, and governments.
91
What is the role of exploration companies in the Canadian tar sands?
They subcontract companies such as Halliburton and oil companies like Shell and Syncrude.
92
What is the role of environmental groups in the Canadian tar sands?
Groups such as Greenpeace campaign and publicize the harmful impacts to the environment and the industrialization of indigenous territories. they also fear the pollution of the athabascan river
93
What is the role of local communities in the Canadian tar sands?
They experience pollution and traffic, but there are also benefits such as job opportunities and investments that improve services.
94
What is the role of governments in the Canadian tar sands?
Most governments wish to be seen as caring for the environment but have equal responsibility to improve energy security and want to promote economic development too hence why this meets 16% of USAs oil mix.
95
What percentage of Norway's share of renewables was in electricity production in 2023?
99%.
96
What share of electricity generation was renewable in Brazil in 2023?
78.4%.
97
What share of electricity generation was renewable in Madagascar in 2023?
Below 10% as this is the least developed country in the UN
98
What are recyclable energies?
Energy provided from sources that can be recycled, such as biofuel and nuclear power.
99
When was nuclear technology developed?
In the 1940s, using the energy from splitting atoms.
100
How many nuclear power plants are there worldwide?
32.
101
What are the advantages of nuclear power in the UK?
Nuclear is 20% of the UK's energy mix, Hinkley Point will provide 7% of Britain's electricity for 60 years, only 50 tonnes of uranium per year compared to 500 tonnes of coal per hour, radiation levels near nuclear plants are less than taking a transatlantic flight, and it will help the UK reduce greenhouse emissions by 80%.
102
What are the disadvantages of nuclear power in the UK?
Very pricey setup and cleanup costs, Chernobyl immediately killed 31 people, immediate waste will fill 14 Olympic-sized swimming pools, short-term issues, and not used for transport and heating.
103
What are biofuels as a recyclable energy source?
Liquid fuel made from biomass sustainably converted using bacteria to produce glucose and then ethanol, providing around 10% of the world's energy.
104
What are the advantages of biofuels as a recyclable energy source?
Production is expected to increase by 25% by 2024 in China and Brazil, agricultural residue has the potential for 100 million tonnes of biofuel, algae feeds stocks without requiring agricultural land, and it reduces reliance on petroleum.
105
What are the disadvantages of biofuels as a recyclable energy source?
More expensive than normal fuel, lacking support from public investments and policies, and causes 250,000 metric tonnes of primary and secondary waste globally in 2016.
106
How much has carbon in the atmosphere changed in the past 200 years?
Gone down by 170 ppm.
107
What are the four main contributing anthropogenic factors causing climate change?
Fossil fuel burning, agriculture, industry, and deforestation.
108
How many kilograms of greenhouse gases does the production of 1 kg of beef create?
60 kg.
109
How much forest is lost per year?
The size of Italy and the size of a football field per second.
110
What does sulfur dioxide do to temperatures?
Cools the atmosphere.
111
What percent of carbon emissions are created by the richest 50% of the population?
86%.
112
What are four ways food and fuel consumption impact the carbon cycle?
In 2019, up to 21% of greenhouse gas emissions came from agriculture and land use change, developed countries use half the world's energy, it releases 60 kg of greenhouse gases per kg of beef, and the world population is expected to increase to 9.2 billion by 2050.
113
How does the conversion of grasslands to farming affect carbon stores?
Initial removal releases CO2 from soils and plants, annual ploughing enables soil bacteria to release CO2, and biofuel crops need carbon-based nitrogen fertilizer.
114
How does the conversion of grasslands to farming affect the water cycle?
Biofuel crops are heavy consumers of water and require irrigation, impacting aquifers.
115
How does the conversion of grasslands to farming affect soil health?
Cultivated soils are liable to erosion by runoff and wind.
116
What is an example of the ocean being a major carbon sink?
Oceans absorb about 30% of all human-released CO2.
117
What does the ocean being a major carbon sink mean?
It is now about thirty percent more acidic than it was in 1750- the carbon that it absorbs lowers the ph
118
What is ocean acidification crossing?
Crossing a critical threshold where we are losing 25% of our reefs due to bleaching. and reefs hold 25% of our marine species.
119
How does bleaching occur?
The zooxanthellae algae in symbiosis with coral polyps can no longer photosynthesize efficiently due to increased acidity. The coral then expels it leaving a calcium carbonate skeleton behind.
120
What could economically be lost due to climate change in the sea?
96 billion dollars lost to the tourism industry, coral is a natural sea defense to tsunamis, and fishing stocks lost as in coral reefs fish often lay their eggs here and 25% fish in coral reefs.
121
What are social impacts of climate change on the sea?
Loss of fish stocks affects fishermen's livelihoods, increased tropical storms as temp gets 27degrees plus , loss of potential medicines eg from the black coral in the mesophytic zone, and fish consuming poisonous algae.
122
What is relevant to discuss in essays about a country's development and its attitude towards the environment?
The Kuznets curve.
123
How can forest loss impact humans?
It leads to poorer air quality and more soil erosion.
124
How many people rely on forests for survival?
1.6 billion people, with 90% in underdeveloped regions.
125
How many prescription drugs sold worldwide are from rainforests?
120.
126
What percentage of the global economy income comes from forests?
1.1%.
127
How many jobs are created from forests?
Over 54 million formal and informal jobs.
128
What are examples of social, economic, and environmental issues due to forest loss?
In Indonesia, over 700 land conflicts occurred in 2016 due to the palm oil industry, the Borneo elephant is close to extinction, and indigenous people are displaced.
129
What is an example of the Kuznets curve in Indonesia?
In 2011, the president declared a forest moratorium to reduce deforestation with 1 billion dollars in funding. and by 2020 they reduced the clearance by 15%
130
What is an example of the Kuznets curve in Brazil?
Brazil has halved its rate of deforestation since 2000.
131
What is an example of the Kuznets curve in China?
The Great Green Wall.
132
What was China's Great Green Wall?
A project set to be complete by 2050 to combat desertification caused by climate change. checkered formation of trees to stabalise dunes and this covers the ghobi desert which coveres 1/4 of china and expansive derertification from it.
133
How much economic loss had there been in China due to desertification before the Great Green Wall?
50 billion dollars.
134
How many acres of land are they planting trees on for the Great Green Wall?
88 acres.
135
What are the cons of the Great Green Wall?
It is monoculture, making it susceptible to pests and genetic disaster.
136
What do increased temperatures do in the Arctic?
They increase evaporation rates and affect precipitation patterns as there is a higher quanity of water vapour in the atmopshere effecting water stores and transfers
137
How does climate change in the Arctic impact the water cycle and effects of this?
- The Arctic could be free of ice by 2037,
- causing floods such as recently in 10 years 19 polar rivers have increased discharge by 10%
- permafrost thawing releasing lots of co2 from the microorganisms that respsire again
- affecting isolated communities having to move south and food insecurity
138
What do climate models predict about climate change?
Temperatures will continue to rise 2-6 degrees between 2000 and 2100.
139
What natural factors make the future of climate change hard to predict?
Milankovitch cycles, sun cycles, long-term ocean and atmospheric oscillations, and the resilience of carbon sinks.
140
What human factors make climate change hard to predict?
Economic growth, energy sources, and population changes.
141
How does economic growth make climate change hard to predict?
After the financial crisis in 2007-8, there were concerns about rising emissions following global GDP recovery as they have risen by 4% roughly by fell by 1% in 2012
142
How do energy sources make climate change hard to predict?
Carbon emissions grew by 2% between 2008 and 2014, but renewables made up 2/3rds of electricity production in 2015 so down to research and level of development.
143
How does population growth make climate change hard to predict?
Natural disasters can change population dynamics, and the population is expected to reach 9.2 billion by 2050. the growth of the western diet is influencial too such as the beef consumption
144
What are other reasons why climate change may be uncertain in the future?
Complex positive feedback loops and tipping points.
145
What is a positive feedback loop?
A mechanism that encourages and accentuates change.
146
What is a tipping point?
An abrupt and possibly irreversible large-scale change in afew decades of less that could if entere could potentially cause a catasprophe
147
What can be done to counteract climate change?
Mitigation and adaptation.
148
What is mitigation for carbon?
Rebalancing the carbon cycle and reducing greenhouse emissions and any impacts of climate change.
149
What is adaptation for carbon?
New ways of doing things to cope with the likely outcomes of climate change including changing our behaviours.
150
What are three adaptation strategies to climate change?
Water conservation and management, resilient agricultural systems, and flood risk management.
151
What is an example of water conservation and management?
Singapore has desalination plants that meets 7% of the demand and urban water harvesting and the NE Water app which educates people on how to recycle water correctly
152
What are the cons of Singapore's water management strategies?
They are expensive and high tech and still depend on imported Malaysian water.
153
What is an example of resilient agricultural systems?
Uganda uses ICT tools to help farmers analyse the crop and livestock markey info and weather reduce crop loss by 65%. this also helps more than 100,000 farmers. they depend on agriculture for 40% of their gdp so economically influencial.
154
What are the cons of resilient agricultural systems?
They require mobile phones or radios, can be costly, and are short-term solutions.
155
What is an example of flood risk management?
Bangladesh has built weather stations and 12000 cyclone shelters. volenteers are also trained to knock on doors organised by gov to warn people. also there is Chittagong example and see water pack for this. seperate gender toilets too.
156
What are the cons of flood risk management?
Not everyone listens to warnings and it focuses only on social aspects instead of economic too.
157
What are three examples of mitigation strategies?
Afforestation, carbon capture and storage, and solar radiation management.
158
What is an example of carbon capture and storage?
Boundary Dam in Canada is the first coal fired powered plant opened in 2014 reduces emissions by 90%.
159
What are the cons of carbon capture and storage?
High costs of 1.3 billion dollars , concerns over CO2 leakage, and potential for small earthquakes.
160
What is an example of solar radiation management?
A Harvard study proposed spreading sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere to cool it. this involves lots 95 planes doing it and after 15 years this could cool the atmosphere by 0.3 degrees
161
What are the cons of solar radiation management?
Complex politics of airspace as US and saudi Arabia are againts it and US have the ability to veto decisions made in the UN and uncertainty about potential consequences.
162
Who are the key players in mitigation or adaptation strategies?
IGOs like the UN, TNCs, international pressure groups, national and local governments, local pressure groups, and consumers.
163
What is the role of IGOs like COP 28?
Making global decisions and setting international policies and agreements such as the eu setting emmision standards etc.
164
What is the role of TNCs in climate change?
TNCs invest in fossil fuels and renewable alternatives which is highly infuencial
165
What do international pressure groups do regarding climate change?
They educate and campaign for lower emissions.
166
What is the role of national and local governments in climate change?
They sign up to agreements and make local decisions, such as recycling methods. eg 44% of uks waaste is recycled
167
What is the role of local pressure groups in climate change?
They advocate for smaller scale energy developments in their areas.
168
How do consumers influence climate change?
Consumers can reduce or increase demand and influence through online petitions, linking to ethical shopping and fair trade.
169
What percentage of people in the UK think climate change is a major threat?
66%
170
What are some problems national governments face in taking action against climate change?
Public concerns such as views spoiled (e.g., Powys windfarm protests), lack of information (e.g., fuel tax protests), and perceived threats to personal health and wellbeing (e.g., petrol riots in 2000).
171
What are the challenges in reaching global agreements on climate change?
Challenges include climate change denial, concerns about limiting economic growth in LICs, fears of decreasing living standards, and prioritizing issues like unemployment or terrorism.
172
What did the Paris Agreement in 2015 introduce?
The global goal of adaptation (GGA), which calls for tripling renewable energy capacity by 2030 and to limit the warming to 1.5 degrees C
173
What happened at COP 28?
was in dubai in 2023 with 200 countries Calls for net zero by 2050, a climate fund received 12.88 billion in pledges, IPCC stressed limiting global warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius, and emphasis on climate justice with 600 million dollars given for this
174
What are the pros and cons of COP 28?
Pros: aligns with scientific consensus to prevent climate change breakdown. Cons: loopholes in the fossil fuel industry and unclear language opposed by countries like Samoa.
175
What does the Climate Change Performance Index measure?
It measures the success of GHG emissions, renewable energy, energy use, and climate policy.
176
Which country ranks first in the Climate Change Performance Index and why?
Denmark ranks first because it aims for net zero by 2045 and has a tax on livestock emissions. also its policy for change in 2016
177
What are the rankings of the USA and China in the Climate Change Performance Index?
USA is 57/63 and China is 55/63 due to globalization, growing economies, and fossil fuel burning.
178
How is carbon stored in geological stores?
Carbon is locked in sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels.
179
How is carbon stored in fossil fuels?
made up to 300 million years ago from remins of organic material such as dead organisms sinking to the bottom of rivers or the sea and covered in mus and silt so then starting to decay annaeroically. the deeper teh deposit the more heat and pressure builds up and anaerobic reactions convert over 90% of organic carbon into a liquid as crude oil. the reians of oil and aquatc animals ad plants is oil and gas and the remains of trees ferns and other plants is coal which has its previous stage of peat
180
How is carbon stored in sedimentary rocks?
accumalations of shll adn skeltatons containing calcium carbonate build on teh sea floor and after long periods they are cemented and compressed into limestone. howeveer these rocks are aslo weathered from carbonic acid rainwater which is acid rain
181
How is carbon released from geological stores?
Carbon is released through weathering and volcanic outgassing.
182
How does weathering release carbon from geological stores?
rainwater contains carbonic acid which absorbs co2from the air. rain reacts with some silicate rocks and dossolves them into releasing calclium ions. the transportanton of calcium icons combines with bicarbonate ions to for calcium carbonate out as minerals such as calcite. decomposition and burial of cacite sediment into carbonate rocks such as limestone which is subduction. leased to some of the carbon rising back to the surface and into teh atmopshere.
183
How does volcanic outgassing release carbon?
volcanic activity releases 30 million tonnes of co2 annually. chemical changes at subductions release co2 into teh atmopshere. mount etna ishas teh highest outgassing in europe because of limestone rocks in the dolomite.
184
What are the three pumps of carbon in the ocean?
The biological pump, carbonate pump, and physical pump.
185
How does the biological pump work?
phytoplankton are single celled micropscopic plants at warmer surface water and they cosumer cp2 from atmopshree with photosynthesis and store in in thei rbodies as carbohydrate. they make up half the planets biomass and gett eaten by zooplanton and consumer fish where they release co2 back to the water or teh atmopshere. only 0.1% reaches the sea floor as teh phytoplankton sink or are decomposed to sefiment. phytoplankton sequester over 2 million tonnes of co2 annually
186
What happens in the carbonate pump?
the marine food web extend ffrom phytoplankton to corsld to oysters and crabs which shells and skeletons are made of calcium carbonate. carbon dioxide is returned to atmopshere via respirtion but when they die they sink to the bottom of the sea floor ad build up with pressure to form limestone sediments or are dissolved in the currents
187
What happens in the physical pump?
upwelling and downwelling of water die to the thermohaline circulation and the deeper the water the more carbon as in 10% more in deep than surface. the phyical pump moves horizontally through currents such as the northern atlantic drift where they are colder they absorb more co2 and are saltier so denser and sink
188
What is the importance of tundra soil as a carbon store?
much of soil in tundra reason is permanentlyy frozen and most microorganisms are not able to release carbon as teh carbon is locked away in te ice
189
What is the importance of tropical rainforests in storing carbon?
huge carbon sink and carbon is manily stored in trees and decomposition and dead wood . largest carbon storring biome cuz deocmpositio and growth occurs all year round
190
How much carbon do mangroves store compared to forests?
Mangroves store 10 times more carbon than forests.
191
How does increased fossil fuel use impact the climate?
It leads to higher storm intensity, desertification, and potential loss of Arctic ice by 2037.
192
How do fossil fuels impact ecosystems?
-if the planet has a 2 degree warming 50% species could lose more than half their geological range
-25 percent of reefs have been bleached
-BY 2080 SHIFTING TEMPS IN north america may affect 314 species of birds
193
How does the demand for fossil fuels alter the hydrological cycle?
-oceans are now 30% more acidic than they were pre industrial times and absorb 30% of all human co2
-in the artic iN 10 years 19 rivers have increased dischrge by almost 10% as permafrost areas thaw
194
What factors influence Norway's energy mix?
-there are 600 heps meaning that it is cheaper when the capital investment is complete
-mountainour region so can actually use hep.
-giv taxes livestock and sale of fossil fuel.
-policy for change meant that they commited to a 40% reduction to ghg emmisions by 2030 and net neutral target by 2050
195
What factors influence the UK's energy mix?
-north sea oil reserve and
-prices of gas rose 200% dueto the ukraine war
-in 2015, uk committed to a 40% reduction in ghg by 2030 with a net 0 target by 2050 too however not taxing livestock or sale of fossil fuels
-public concerns over fracking and nuclear but due to privitisation in 1980s, can access from abroad
196
When was OPEC formed?
OPEC was formed in 1960.
197
What are the pros of solar energy?
china provides 80% of worlds solar panels so there is a large capacity
-battery is now 20% more efficient than it has been.
-1.5 hours of sunlight may enable them to power humans for a year
-cheapest source of electricty in the world so can be used in poorer and more undeveloped countries
198
What are the cons of solar energy?
It generates 78 million tonnes of waste and is not effective everywhere due to sunlight requirements.
199
What are the pros of wind energy?
The UK had 2000 wind farms in 2023, making it a relatively cheap energy source from 20,000 pounds.
200
What are the cons of wind energy?
Wind farms require 8-25 miles per hour winds and are mostly located in coastal areas.
201
What are the pros of hydroelectric power?
- The Aswan High Dam HEP scheme was built in an arid area of Egypt but is fed by the river Nile to generate power, even though it only has 10mm of precipitation a year
-hydroelectric power generation accounts for 17% of the world’s electricity as it is highly eficient and can generate a large capacity of electricity
202
What are the cons of hydroelectric power?
-the construction of water dams may affect the migration and movement of aquatic organisms, hinder their reproduction, and in some extreme cases
-climate change threatens the security of thsi to stay constant levels of electricity produced expecially like in areas such as the aswan dam where there might be a drought
-generally found in areas with higher precipitation and snow or valleys and rivers
203
What is a positive feedback loop in climate change?
Carbon release from melting permafrost, which contains 3 times more CO2 than forests combined.
204
How does technology affect the UK's energy mix?
there are 150 years left of coal but current tech and env policy makes this unrealistic. however deep sea drilling technology for oil and gas
205
How does technology affect Norway's energy mix?
Deepwater drilling technology is used in the North Sea for oil and gas.
206
What is the influence of state-owned oil companies like Gazprom?
very high-gazprom has 52% ownership of russian TNCs and its influencial in decision making as it decides where the tncs can invest.
207
What is the role of environmentalists in energy supply?
They have moderate to high influence, requiring large campaigns to effect change.
208
What is the role of consumers in energy supply?
Consumers have moderate influence, impacting preferred energy decisions.
209
What is an example of a TNC influencing energy supply?
BP operates in 70 countries, refining and trading oil and gas, influencing government policies.
210
What are oil choke points and an example?
conflict places where oil passes through such as the
- straits of hormuz where 20% of worlds oil passes through and in 2019 iran seized a uk oil tanker ship.
- panama canal there is piracy issues. or in 2016 oil pipe lines in nigeria bombed
211
How wide is the Strait of Hormuz?
39 km wide.
212
What is an environmental conflict affecting global energy security?
huricane katrina effcete the refining process in the gulf of mexico meaning oil and gas prices rose and 10 days after the production was only at 42% the norm rate
213
What is a social conflict affecting global energy security?
Pipelines in Nigeria were bombed by a militant group in 2016, causing a loss of 300,000 barrels of oil per day.
214
What is a technical conflict affecting global energy security?
In 2011, oil prices in Alaska rose due to a leak in the Trans-Alaskan Oil Pipeline for 5 days.
215
What are two examples of unconventional fossil fuel extraction?
Brazilian deep water exploration and fracking.
216
What is happening with Brazilian deep water oil exploration?
Petrobras began developing a deepwater oil field discovered in 2006.
217
What are the pros of Brazilian deep water oil exploration?
-the oil field discovered in 2006 has reserves of 50-80 billion barrells of oil
-in brazil only 13% energy mix is fossil fuels so with this it woule provide greated enegy security, jobs and exports.
218
What are the cons of Brazilian deep water oil exploration?
-special fleet of storage and offloading ships at 2 billion each so expensive
-environmental oil spills
-safety
-in 2016 petrobas was in US4100bil debt
219
What is an example of fracking?
Onshore fracking began in the UK in 2008, with a fast-tracked policy introduced in 2015.
220
What are the cons of fracking?
-Increased methane emissions, a greenhouse gas that traps 80 times more heat than carbon dioxide
- Small earthquakes can be experienced at the drilling sites, one earth tremor lasted 100 hours so socially disliked
- Contamination of groundwater
221
What is a pro of fracking with an example?
It increases energy security; in 2015, natural gas from fracking overtook coal as the main electricity generator in the USA.
222
What are the impacts of deforestation in Madagascar on soil health?
-rain impact washes fine particles and humus away which leaves the heavier and sandier sediment
-soil erosion occurs
-leaching where there is a loss of nutrients and runoff of them meaning the soils are left infertile
-co2 is released from decaying wood
223
What are the impacts of deforestation in Madagascar on the water cycle?
-annual rainfall reduced
-infiltration increased
-eroded material carried as silt in the rivers
-more flooding as more runoff and erosion
224
What are the impacts of deforestation in Madagascar on the carbon cycle?
-derease in habitat and biomass loss due to less plants and photosynthesis
-evapotranspiriation rates of those laft of grasslands are 1/3 of those from the tropical rainforests
225
What are the impacts of deforestation in Madagascar on the atmosphere?
-turbulenece as sunlight heated ground induces convectional air currents
-o2 concs decrease and higher co2 concs
226
What are the impacts of deforestation in Madagascar on the biosphere?
Species diversity is reduced, evapotranspiration decreases, and CO2 absorption declines.
227
How has climate change impacted the health of the Amazon rainforest?
In 2005, 30% of the Amazon was damaged by a megadrought; in 2010, another megadrought affected nearly half.
228
What pattern has been spotted from climate change in the Amazon rainforest?
Increased frequency of drought.
229
What damage does a tree undergo during a drought?
Photosynthesis slows by 10% over 6 months, leading to less CO2 absorption and potential tree death.
230
How much CO2 did the 2010 Amazonian drought produce?
8 billion tonnes of CO2.
231
What is the Amazonian drought an example of?
A positive feedback loop.
232
What are trees known as in relation to carbon?
A carbon sink.
233
How much of the global carbon sink is the Amazon responsible for?
50-60%.
234
How much more CO2 is being emitted today from tropical forests compared to the 1990s?
1/3 more, with implications for future carbon release.
235
How much CO2 did the 2010 Amazonian drought produce?
8 BILLION tonnes of CO2
236
What is the Amazonian drought an example of?
A positive feedback loop
237
What are trees known as?
A carbon sink
238
How much of the global carbon sink is the Amazon?
50-60%
239
How much more CO2 is being emitted today from tropical forests than in the 1990s?
1/3 more
## Footnote
In the future, they could release more than they store.
240
What is the volume percentage decrease of boreal forests in the past 40 years?
25%
## Footnote
This is a large carbon store.
241
What is another example of a positive feedback loop?
Global temperatures rising leading to the albedo effect, where warmth is absorbed rather than reflected.
242
What is the positive feedback loop doing in the Arctic?
Increasing the temperature 2-3 times faster than the rest of the world.
243
What percent of solar radiation does snow and ice at the poles reflect?
85%
244
What is another example of a positive feedback loop involving permafrost?
permafrost - when increased temp there is thawing and microbes waking up and feeding on dead plant and animal matter releasing methane which is much worse (80x?) than co2 when it comes to absorbing solar radiation and heating the earth further.
245
How much more CO2 does permafrost store than forests combined?
3 times more
246
What effect does climate change have on peatlands?
- Causes them to dry out as water tables fall.
- Increases decomposition rate.
- A warming of 4 degrees causes a 40% loss of soil organic carbon from shallow peat.
- This carbon is released in the form of methane.
247
What effect does climate change have on thermohaline circulation?
Melting ice sheets increase saltier water, blocking and slowing currents and reducing carbon storage in the ocean.
248
Why are there uncertainties around climate feedbacks?
The IPCC says it is difficult to predict the outcomes of climate change and this on a global scale as it easier on a local scale.it is also difficult to predict how the relationships between these processes will change as this is new ground and we don't fully know what will happen.
249
What are some radical technology methods to address climate change?
Carbon capture and storage, nuclear fusion, nanotech, electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel cells.
250
What is an example of carbon capture and storage and its benefits?
-Canada's boundry dam coal fired power
-thsi can provide 16% of US electricity
-reducedes emmisions by 90%
251
What is a con of carbon capture and storage?
Boundary Dam in Canada costs 1.3 billion dollars.
252
What is an example of hydrogen fuel cells and its benefits?
Toyota developed the Mirai car with a range of 270 miles running on hydrogen.
253
What is a con of hydrogen fuel cells?
The Toyota Mirai uses other compounds like methane, which isn't environmentally clean.
254
What are some benefits of electric vehicles?
- Range up to 340 miles.
- Zero carbon emissions.
- Almost 4000 public charging locations in the UK.
255
What is a con of electric vehicles?
- Noise and safety concerns.
- Average price of 46,000 pounds.
256
What is an example of nuclear fusion and its benefits?
Two or more atomic nuclei join to make a larger nucleus, releasing energy. 35 countries are working together to make this work.
257
What is a con of nuclear fusion?
- It will take a long time to achieve.
- Expensive, with Germany investing around 1.5 billion US dollars into research.
258
What is an example of government involvement in energy security?
norways gov taxing livestock and sales of fossil fuels. their policy for chaneg in 2015 and to reduce carbo emmisions by 40% by 2030 and be net neutral by 2030
259
What is an example of OPEC's role in energy security?
countries involved included iran and iraq and they set oil production quota for member countries to control the amount of oil and gas etereing the global market. opec has 12 members and was formed in 1960
260
How much of the world's oil and gas production does OPEC oversee?
60%
261
What is an example of a TNC being a key player in energy security?
BP explores, refines, markets, and trades as an oil and gas superpower.
262
How many countries does BP operate in?
70
263
What can TNCs like BP do that is highly influential?
Fund political parties and influence governments on fossil fuel usage.
264
What is an example of consumers being a key player in energy security?
Households account for over 1/4 of the UK's energy consumption, influenced by choices.
265
What is energy security?
Ensuring the energy supply meets current and future demand.
266
What threatens energy security?
Conflict
267
Assess how different countries have been at achieving energy security.
-conflicts occur such as the ukraine and russia war that increase oil prices for even developed nations such as the uk by 10%
-oil choke points influencing energy security when in 2016 oil pipelins in nigeria were bombed and 300,000 barrels of oil escaped a day
-climate change makes storms such as hurricane katrina in gulf of mexico which made the production go down by 42% after 10 days
-level of development so developed countries can invest in more renewabke and recyclable for the long term energy security of when coal and gas and oil runn out. such as hinkley point ukk where it will supply the energy mix of the uk by 7% in the next 60 years
268
Explain why the level of economic development affects the energy mix of countries.
-undeveloped countries heavily rely on biomass as it is cheap and renewable energy is too expensive. madagascar is the poorest country in the un and it has less than 10% of its energy mix renewable
-more developed countries can see the kuzlnets curve and be more successful in renewable or recyclable energy such as norways policyfor change and 38.5 percent of their enrgy mix being hep in 2022. their energy mix in 2023 was 99% renewable
269
What affects energy security?
-level of development
-climate change
-conflict
-oil choke points
-economic development leading to things such as petrobas barzil supplying 13% of their energy mix
270
problem with combustion of fossil fuels
fossil fuels re a long term carbon store and it is released quickly into the shorter term store with no where to go
271
trend in energy sources over time x2
- modern biofuels are increasing due to cutting down rainforesnts for it but seem more env freindly
-energy general has increased due to industrial rev and discovery of tech and growth pop and middle class growth and wealth
272
what is the pattern of the oil producer and share of the worlds oil in 2023
big developed countries
273
canada is home to how much wetland
1/4
274
what is peak oil
point in time where is max petroleum extraction and rate of production before it hits terminal decline
275
example of afforestation as a mitigation method
the great green wall in china
276
diagram of artic amplification
277
greenhouse effect diagram
278
diagram of carbon being cycled in the soil
279
biogeochemical carbon cycle diagram showing inputs outputs and fluxes and proportional arrows
280
4 physical factors that create uncertancies in the future if climate change
-milankovitch cycles
-sun cycles
-long term ocean and atmospheric oscillations such enso cycles
-the resilience of carbon stores
281
what are milankovitch cycles
long term changes in the earths orbit altering its proximity with the sun
282
what are sun cycles with example
11 year variations in the number of sunspots(area with the more solar radiation on teh sun). which increases or decreases radiation produced. this may explain the summer of 2022 uk
283
waht is the IPCC
intergovernmental panel on climate change
284
what are examples of positive feedback loops that may push us past a tipping point
forests die back, melting of artic ice, melting of permafrost, carbon release from peatlands,changes to themohaline circulation
