Water Flashcards
precipitation types, isreal conflict with jordan war, el nino and la nina (233 cards)
1
Q
What is the hydrological cycle?
A
Circulation of water
2
Q
What is a store in the hydrological cycle?
A
Where water is held in a state of solid, liquid or gas for a long period of time
3
Q
What is flux or flow?
A
Movement of water from one state to another, e.g., cloud to sea where water evaporates and then condenses
4
Q
What powers the hydrological cycle?
A
Solar energy
5
Q
What is precipitation?
A
Water that falls to the land as rain, snow, sleet, or hail
6
Q
What is interception?
A
When precipitation lands on buildings, vegetation, or concrete before it reaches the soil
7
Q
What is percolation?
A
Movement of water vertically through rocks
8
Q
What is surface runoff?
A
Movement of water over the surface of land, often when land is saturated or frozen and impermeable, or when rainfall is so intense that infiltration can’t occur
9
Q
What are examples of impermeable surfaces?
A
Tarmac, concrete, clay rock
10
Q
What is a permeable surface?
A
Sandstone
11
Q
What is infiltration?
A
Movement of water through soil or plants
12
Q
What is groundwater flow?
A
The deeper movement of water through underlying permeable rock strata below the water table. eg limestone is highly permeable with lots of joints that can lead to faster transfer of flow until it reaches a impermeable strata
13
Q
What is the global hydrological cycle?
A
The circulation of water around Earth, being a closed system that has no inputs or outputs
14
Q
What are the four stores of water?
A
Oceans, glaciers and ice sheets (cryosphere), surface runoff, atmosphere
15
Q
What is the largest store of freshwater?
A
Cryosphere, accounting for 69% of global freshwater
16
Q
What are the four main flows in the hydrological cycle?
A
Precipitation, evaporation, transpiration, and vapor transport
17
Q
How does water cycle up?
A
- Driven by solar energy
- Water evaporates into the atmosphere
- Water is drawn down from the soil by plants as water evaporates from leaves and stems by evapotranspiration
- When humid air rises, condensation occurs at cooler temperatures, forming clouds and leading to precipitation
18
Q
How does water cycle down to the ground?
A
-on land gravitational potential energy is converted to kinetic energy as the water moves through the system by plant interception or over land by surface runoff.
-water also flows through the soil by the process of infiltration and through flow
-here it may be stored as soil moisture or if the bedrock is permeable or porous will percolate into the rock where it is stored as groundwater
-some of this water will return to the oceans via streams and rivers which may take time if it is stored in lakes or glaciers rn route
19
Q
What is fossil water?
A
Ancient, deep groundwater from former pluvial (wetter) periods, considered non-renewable as it takes a long time to replenish
20
Q
What is the statistic about water availability for humans?
A
Less than 1% of water is available for humans to use due to our growing population
21
Q
What is the most accessible store of water?
A
Groundwater
22
Q
What is a drainage basin?
A
A subsystem within the global hydrological cycle that is an area of land drained by rivers and its tributaries. each one is seperated by a watershed
23
Q
What are the five physical factors that influence drainage basin systems?
A
- Climate
- Soil
- Geology
- Relief
- Vegetation
NOW explain how each of these influence the drainage basin
24
Q
What are the three types of precipitation?
A
Orographic, frontal, and convectional
25
Where are the highest precipitation inputs?
tropics (area of the ITCZ). here solar radiatio is the most concentrated and warm air rises at a low pressure causing water vapour and clouds and rainfal as air cools.
26
Where is the least precipitation globally?
on the areas of tropic of cancer and capricorn (23.5 degrees N and S) there is high pressureand less cloud cover as the air is sinking rather than cooling and condensing.
27
What type of relief receives more rainfall?
Mountainous areas
28
What temperature gets the most rainfall?
Areas receiving the most solar radiation, e.g., the equator (insolation)
29
What latitudes receive the most rainfall?
Mid latitudes, where cold fronts meet warm fronts
30
What are the four human factors that influence drainage basins?
-over abstraction: taking out too much groundwater reduces groundwater stores and flowss and means less water enters the river via -over abstraction: taking out too much groundwater reduces groundwater stores and flowss and means less water enters the river via grondeater flow which reduces chanel flow
-defororestation: reduces inception storage so water reacges the ground and sarurated the soil rapidly, reducing infiltration and leading to more surface storage and runoff. ground water stores are likely to rapidly decrease as less water is infiltrating over periods of time. evotranspiration is also reduced.
-Reserviours: delay and distrupt channel flows and increase evaporation.
-channging land use: means deforestation, urbanisation and farming. this increases inpermeable surfaces which reduces infiltration and reduces soil moisture storage and through flow and groundwater flows and stores. surface storage and runoff increases as well as channell flow as drainage systems transfer water directly into the river. machinery flatterns farming surfaces leading to reduced infiltration, soil stroage, throughflow, groundwater flows and increasing srface runoff.grondeater flow which reduces chanel flow
-defororestation: reduces inception storage so water reacges the ground and sarurated the soil rapidly, reducing infiltration and leading to more surface storage and runoff. ground water stores are likely to rapidly decrease as less water is infiltrating over periods of time. evotranspiration is also reduced.
-Reserviours: delay and distrupt channel flows and increase evaporation.
-channging land use: means deforestation, urbanisation and farming. this increases inpermeable surfaces which reduces infiltration and reduces soil moisture storage and through flow and groundwater flows and stores. surface storage and runoff increases a
31
What is a water budget?
Shows the annual balance between inputs and outputs and their impact on soil water availability due to the climate of the area. can provide useful insights for farmers for when is most suitable to grow crops. this can be used, nationally, locally or regionally
32
What is a river regime?
Indicates the annual variation of discharge of a river resulting from the impact of climate, geology, and soils, which is used to contrast river basins
33
What are the four descriptions of things in the water budget?
- Soil moisture deficit
- Soil moisture recharge
- Soil moisture surplus
- Soil moisture utilization
LEARN their position in a annual graph
34
What are the six factors that influence river regimes?
-size of river as the bigger river the bigger flow
-amount, pattern and intensity of rainfall increasing flow
-temps as the lower the bigger the flow and less evapotranspiration
-geology as the more impermeable the bigger the flow
amount ad type of vegetation cover as the less the veg cover the less flow
-human activities influencing flow
35
How many dams are there in the Amazon?
54
36
What do flashy hydrographs have?
Rapid discharge and high risk of sudden flood, therefore short lag time and high peak discharge flow
37
What do subdued flood hydrographs have?
Longer lag time and lower peak discharge flow due to lower risk of sudden flooding
38
What influences flood hydrographs?
Physical and human factors, useful for predicting flood risk and comparing drainage basin responses to a precipitation event
39
What do hydrographs plot?
Occurrence of short periods of rain over a drainage basin and the subsequent discharge of the river
40
What factors affect a flash hydrograph?
- Urbanization
- Vegetation
- Relief
- Rock type and soil
- Shape of drainage basin
- Drainage density
- Drainage basin size
- Land use such as farming
Now explain why
41
What is the role of urban planning in managing land use?
within the uk, planners are required t determine whether any propsed developmemt will influence floof ris such as new housing estates.
42
What have urban planners recently introduced to reduce runoff produced by rainfall and conserve water stores?
Sustainable Drainage Systems (SuDS)
43
What are seven examples of SuDS?
-green roofs: vegetation cver planted over a waterproof membrane
-infiltratin basins: shallow depressions dug out t delay runff by using gaps between pavement slabs
-rainwater harvesting: cllecting rainwaterfrom roofs t be recycled eg fr irrigtating gardens
-soak-away: a channel dug ut to disperse surface water int the ground
-filter grains: trenches filled with gravel to take runoff away
-detention basins: to delay storm runoff fro afew hours
-wetlands: retention areas with marsh vegetation
44
What is drought?
A period of abnormally low rainfall
45
Where doesn't have droughts and why?
Deserts, because they are arid
46
How is drought measured?
Drought index or rainfall index
47
What are the four different types of drought?
-meterological:shortfalll in p as a result of short term variations of long ternds that ibcrease the length of dry season
-hydrological: reduced streamflow and groundwater levels cuz of less p and more evapotrsnapiration
-agricultural\: when there is not enough soil moisture to meet the needs of a particular crop att a specific time. usually happens as a result of a meteorilogical drought and before a hydrological drought
-socioeconomic: when the water demand for social and economic purposes exeeds water availability such as HEP and irrigations.
48
What are the four physical causes of drought?
-persistant high pressure, related to the jet stream (linked to the atmospheric circulation system)
-seasonal rain of monsoon failure, linked to teh ICTZ- sahel drought 2000 where crops had a 1/3rd production loss
-ENSO cycles (el nina and la nino) changing distrubution of pressure belts (global atmospheric model)- the big dry 2006 austrailia where reserviours fell by 40% and it was a 1 in 1000 year drought
-long term precipitation changes by gloabl warming (also linked to the atmospheric circulation system) the big dry and sahel desertification
49
What is the statistic about the world's drought exposure?
Over a third of the world has had some drought exposure, covering about 70% of the population and agricultural land
50
What percentage of the population is in areas of the most severe drought exposure?
18%
51
What is the atmospheric circulation system?
Redistribution of heat, where warm less dense air rises in low pressure and colder denser air sinks in high pressure- DRAW A DIAGRAM
52
What is the size of the low pressure center region?
18 km at the tropopause, the lowest part of our atmosphere containing all our weather
53
explaination of insolation and latitude effecting the hydrological cycle
-radiation aslo travels through a larger depth of atmosphere at the polar regions, so more is lost due to scattering and absorbtion by gases and particles in atmosphere
-the tilt of the earth means that some polar regions at times dont see sun
-at higher latitudes, there is more insolation spread over a larger surface area, but more conc with more heat at equator due to lower surface area
-ice and snow in polar regions are reflective to insolation with the Albido effect, so bounces back to atmopshere and absorbed by atmospheric gases.
54
How do humans cause more severe droughts?
By over abstraction of surface water and groundwater
55
What are eight ways that humans cause drought with exmamples
-pop growth putting pressure on land to grow more food- sahel is the largest pop growth in world with 2.5%
-land use change: the grand ASWAN DAM reduced the nile basins flow by 65% initially
-overgrazing with animals that destroy vegatation cover and overcultivation which is the intense use of marginal land to destroy soil- sahel 2000 drought
-deforestation which cuts down trees for fuel and housing etc which means the roots no longer bind soil and erosion happens- megadrought amazon 2010 half trees damaged and 10% decrease in photosynthesis over 6 months
-climate change causing physcal effects explained
-depletion of water sources by pollution by saltwater encroachment to coastal aquifers and surface water pollution- kerala india lead pollution from coca cola plant and the plachimada people att risk
-urbanisation and overabstraction increases the runoff and not percolation to goundwater soruces that we abstract from such as in china there is water insecurity in the 16 mil population of beijing but they only recieve 7% of the water due to 40% of it being used on agriculture. the big dry australia
56
What is an example of an LIC drought and its causes?
Sahel region in 2000s
physical causes:
-only two rainy seasons a year with 100-300mm p a year meaning alreadyw water scarcity
-also changes to teh atmosperic circulaton system mean that some tropical rains do not arrive due to a failure in the ITCZ
-climate chanegs increase sea temps and this leads to less rainfall here
-increased temps and lower rainfal due to teh el nino effect
human:
-rapid pop growth of up to 4% a year
-45% of gdp market is agriculture here
## Footnote
Physical causes: only two rainy seasons a year, changes to the atmospheric circulation system, climate change, increased temperatures. Human causes: rapid population growth, high GDP reliance on agriculture.
57
What happened in the Sahel droughts?
-demands for fuelwood and food is excellorating
-low shade coverage so less biodiversity and more pest attacking crops in arid land meaning grain production cut down by 1/3rd in countries like chad. the lack of biodiversity also makes the soil without nutrients as less organic mattter and less moisture.
-land is undergoing soil erosion (no plants through deforestation to bind sediment), deertification and overcultivation
-the 1999-2000 ethiopean Eritrean drought caused 10 million in need of food assitance which was helped slightly by the world food programme, but war between two countries mostly blocked this
58
What is an example of a drought in a HIC?
The Big Dry in 2006 in Australia
59
What are the physical causes of the Big Dry?
- El Niño event
- Major shift in rainfall patterns
- Climate change
- Low rainfall associated with subtropical blocking anticyclones which are estimated to account for 80% of the rainfall decline in the south eastern australia
60
Where did the Big Dry commence?
In the Murray Darling basin, a 1 in 1000 year drought event
61
What were the effects of the Big Dry in 2006?
- More than 10,000 farms had to leave their land
- Reservoirs fell by 40%
- urban centres such as Adelaide draw 40% of its drinking water from the Murray Darling River so this was highly socially consequencial
62
What has been done after the big dry in 2006?
New schemes like costly desalination plants and recycling of grey water were implemented to meet the water supply needs of a developed country.
63
What are the meteorological causes of flood
- Intense rainfall
- Prolonged rainfall
- Snowmelt
- Monsoon
64
Explain intense rainfall leading to flooding with an example.
Intense rainfall occurs without warning and is associated with severe thunderstorms or repeated storms FIND EXAMPLE NOV 2013
## Footnote
Example: November 2013 uk thunderstorm caused 18 deaths and more than US$1.14 billion in damage.
65
Explain prolonged rainfall leading to flooding with an example.
Gravel can initially absorb rainfall, but when it and groundwater flow cannot transfer water away quickly enough, it becomes saturated, leading to faster surface runoff and larger river channels spilling into flood plains. the australian flood rain occured for two weeks
## Footnote
See textbook example.
66
Explain snowmelt leading to flooding with an example.
A sudden rise in temperatures in spring causes rapid movement and surface runoff, leading to flash floods. eg Red River in north Dakota Usa ad record level flood levesl due to snow melt on impermable ground in 1997. 19 polar rivers in the past 10 years have increased their discharge by 10%
## Footnote
Example: Red River in North Dakota, USA, had record flood levels due to snowmelt on impermeable ground in 1997.
67
Explain monsoon leading to flooding with an example.
Monsoons involve seasonal convergence in the direction of prevailing winds and include wet and dry seasons, especially near oceans. eg in india and souh east asia summer monsoons carry very hevy rainfall from he warm time of april to september. these monsoons are often due to the movement of the ITCZ.
## Footnote
Example: In India and Southeast Asia, summer monsoons carry heavy rainfall from April to September.
68
What are the four human causes of flooding with examples?
- Deforestation: In the Amazon, land use change for farming increased the Tocantins river discharge by 25%.
- Urbanisation: The 2011 Australian flood was partly caused by 35 years of urban sprawl in Brisbane, damaging 60 schools.
- Climate change: 19 polar rivers experienced a 10% increase in discharge over 10 years.
- Hard engineering: 622 km of flooded land at the Three Gorges Dam. INSERT RIVER STRIAGHTENING EXAMPLE MORE DEPTH ON THIS.
69
Explain deforestation leading to flooding with an example.
Deforestation reduces interception and evapotranspiration, increasing surface runoff. Without roots to bind sediments, soil erosion occurs, reducing river capacity and causing floods. -eg the tocantins river increasing in 25% discharge because of this in the amazon between 1960 and 1979
## Footnote
Example: The Tocantins river increased discharge by 25% due to deforestation in the Amazon.
70
Explain urbanisation leading to flooding with an example.
Urbanisation creates more impermeable surfaces, leading to faster surface runoff into rivers, causing flashy floods. for example the flood in australia due to urban sprawl in brisbanne for 35 years
## Footnote
Insert textbook example.
71
Explain floodplain drainage leading to flooding with an example.
Development expands land for urbanisation and agriculture, reducing space for flood plains, especially when wetlands are lost. example of australian flood
## Footnote
Add textbook example.
72
Explain hard engineering leading to flooding with an example.
floood management by hard eng is done to reduce flood frequency but they dont increase the capacity for a flood because they use stuff lie embankments. not too effective all the time
eg missisippi river straightened the river my cutting through meanders and constructed artificial leeves to increase the capacity. however the flood risk natural forces overhwelmed this as in 1993 and 2011 there were major floods
## Footnote
Example: The Mississippi River was straightened, but major floods occurred in 1993 and 2011.
73
How are anticyclones formed?
areas of high pressure and the winds tend to be blown in a clockwise diretctin in the nortern hemisphere. also air is descending meaning teh formation of cload and this leads to light winds and settled weather conditions. high pressure in the summer oftern brings warm days and long sunny days in prolonged dry periods. this can cause drought suach as in the early 2012 and heatwaves which can become hazards such as record breaking hot temps across europe in 2003 summer. often leads r cold dry days with light wind and severe night time frost can develop if clear skies in winter.
74
What are depressions?
Depressions are areas of low pressure with rising air that blows anticlockwise in the Northern Hemisphere, leading to cloud formation and precipitation.
75
What are the general socio-economic effects of flooding?
- Death and injury
- Spread of waterborne diseases
- Trauma
- Property damage
- Transport and communications disruptions
- Water and energy supply disruptions
- Crop destruction
- Everyday life disruptions like work and income.
76
What are the general negative environmental effects of flooding?
- Increased surface runoff of sediment and nutrient leaching, possibly leading to eutrophication.
- Pollution of soils with nitrates, chemicals, and heavy metals.
- Damage to habitats, breeding grounds, and food supplies, impacting ecosystems and biodiversity.
77
What are the general positive environmental effects of flooding?
- Recharges groundwater supplies.
- Replenishes soils.
- Triggers migration and dispersion.
- Increases connectivity between habitats.
78
What percentage of disasters were floods between 2000 and 2019?
44%.
79
How many floods were reported worldwide between 2000 and 2019?
Over 3,200.
80
What was the experience of flooding between 2000 and 2019?
Flooding was the most widely experienced disaster globally.
81
What fact about flood expense from 2000 to 2019?
Floods were the second most expensive disaster, resulting in 22% of disaster-related losses.
82
What fact about the lethality of floods between 2000 and 2019?
Floods did not kill as many people as other disasters, accounting for only 2% of disaster-related deaths.
83
What facts about the location of flood deaths and economic damage between 2000 and 2019?
90% of all flood deaths and 50% of economic damage occurred in Asia, notably in China, India, and Bangladesh.
84
How does climate change influence the hydrological cycle?
- Increases evapotranspiration, as seen in Madagascar's deforestation, which dropped evapotranspiration by 1/3.
- Affects stores and flows leading to flooding, such as melting permafrost and a 10% discharge increase in 19 rivers. this is a positive feedback loop
- Alters ENSO cycles, causing larger droughts and floods, like the Australian flood in 2011 and drought in 2006.
- Increases the magnitude and frequency of tropical storms due to a more intense ITCZ and warmer temperatures, increasing rain by 20%.
85
What impacts does short-term climate change have on the hydrological cycle?
ENSO cycles are associated with flooding and drought, and extreme temperatures may amplify these effects, making them more regular or intense.
86
What other effect does climate change have on the hydrological system with an example?
Increases uncertainty in the ITCZ system, causing concern over future water security, as seen in the Sahel region's drought in 2000.
87
What effect does climate change have on arid areas that are high-pressure belts with an example?
-increased rates of evaporation cudl lead to mre droughts and water scacity. grundwater stores and flows will deplete as they will be able to replenish and recharge. surface and soil moisture stores will aslo decrease. humidity and precip drops- sahel region leading to desertification and drought where there gdp relies 45% on agriculture and 65% crop loss
## Footnote
Example: The Sahel region faces desertification and drought, with 45% of GDP reliant on agriculture and 1/3 crop loss.
88
What does climate change do to low-pressure belts like in the ITCZ?
there will a rise in temps meaning to more convectional rainfal and enhanced cyclone or depression intensity. warmer air can hold more moisture so when this rises and cols larger clouds will bring heavier precipitation by 20%. it will also increase frequency of tropical storms with oceans more than 27 degrees. if this p exceeds the infiltration capacity then soil will saturate and leading to surfcae runoff causing more intense and regular flooding. increases evap, condesnsation and precip will also bring dorught du eto itcz failure
89
What effect does climate change have on polar regions?
Glaciers, permafrost, and snow melt, depleting water stores but increasing flows like surface runoff earlier in the year, causing freshwater shortages. 19 polar rivers increases discharge by 10% in 10 years
90
How does climate change influence the type of precipitation?
Higher rain instead of snow in northern regions leads to more surface runoff and flow.
91
What is the process that causes climate change?
Increasing greenhouse gas emissions lead to more heat trapped in the atmosphere by the enhanced greenhouse effect, raising air and sea surface temperatures.
92
When does water insecurity/stress
occur?
When there is less than 1,700 m³ of water per person per day.
93
What amount begins water scarcity?
Below 1,000 m³ of water per day per person.
94
What are the human causes of water scarcity with examples?
- Over abstraction: China uses 40% of its water for irrigation, leaving Beijing with 7% of its supply for 16 million people.
- Industrial pollution: Kerala, India, faces lead pollution, affecting jobs at the Coca-Cola factory.
- Privatisation: In 2000, Bolivia's privatisation forced people in La Paz to choose between feeding their kids or getting water.
- Climate change: 1 billion Sub-Saharan Africans face water scarcity due to intensified droughts in the ITCZ.
- Growing population: Expected 9.2 billion by 2050, with high water demands for beef (15,000 litres) compared to potatoes (670 litres).
95
What are the physical causes of water scarcity?
- Climate change and variability: Droughts like those in the Sahel.
- pollution: such as california central valley
- Geology: permeable rock areas like the Sahel lose water quickly.
- Amount of precipitation: Low precipitation in desert areas like the Sahel.
- Saltwater encroachment: In Kiribati with 33 islands 1m high ish, rising saltwater blocks freshwater supplies.
- Land use change: Dams like the Aswan Dam reduced Nile flow by 65%, affecting 90% of Egyptians. and missisipi river straightening
96
What is a California example of water insecurity in a developed country due to pollution?
The Central Valley in California supplies 12% of USA's agriculture but faces agricultural water insecurity due to nitrate pollution.
97
Where is there physical water scarcity and what does this cause?
Beijing, with a population of 16 million, faces high-tech industry and agriculture demands, leading to an average of 240 litres per person per day.
98
By how much could China's water demand exceed supply by 2030?
China's demand could exceed supply by 25%, and India's by 50%.
99
What type of countries have economic water stress with an example of price?
Low-income countries (LICs) where the cost of water from vendors is 100 times the price of using a tap.
100
How do river systems affect water insecurity?
Less water availability upstream, especially due to seasonal changes, leads to lower discharges in regions on a continental scale.
101
How does climate affect water insecurity?
Tropical regions (30 degrees N and S) experience recurring drought due to sinking air and high pressure. Climate change exacerbates this, increasing evaporation and reducing percolation into groundwater aquifers. there is also saltwater encroachment
102
How does geology affect water insecurity?
permeable rocks like chalk and limestone store water in aquifers, providing better water availability than areas with permeable rocks.
103
How does saltwater encroachment affect water insecurity?
Global sea level rise increases the risk of saltwater intrusion on freshwater supplies in coastal areas like Kiribati, where extensive groundwater pumping allows saltwater to move into soils and aquifers.
104
What is driving the rising water demand?
- Population growth 9.2 bill by 2050
- Economic development: Agriculture and industry, such as cooling processes.
- Raising living standards, increasing per capita water consumption for drinking, cooking, and cleaning.
105
What are the three human factors affecting water availability?
Quantity, quality, and access.
106
How does quantity affect water availability?
The population is expected to reach 9.2 billion by 2050, with high water demands for certain foods, such as 15,000 litres for 1 kg of beef compared to 670 litres for potatoes.
107
How does quality affect water availability with a case study of Kerala in India? other example in central valley california
-pollution from agriculture, sewage and manufacturing, eg the Kerala in India with the plachimada people
disposed sludge from coca cola factory containing high levels of txic metals alike lead..
-80% of sewage in developing countfies is disposed tolarge water bodies
-fertlilisers cause eutrophication and growth of algae blocking marine species to survive in the oxygen deficit
## Footnote
Example: The Plachimada people in Kerala suffer from toxic sludge from the Coca-Cola factory, containing high levels of lead.
108
How does access affect water availability?
-in may lics the water disyrubitions systems aer inneficient and people have to walk many miles t access water
-1 bil in sub saharan africa ahve to do this
-africa uses less than 25 percent of its river resources
-in the sahel there are 40 billion hours sepnt yearly collecting water mainly by women
-in bolivia, the gov has reduced the access to water in Cochabamba by 16 percent making it inafordable
## Footnote
Example: 1 billion in Sub-Saharan Africa face this issue.
109
When does physical water scarcity occur?
When more than 75% of the country's water flows are being used.
110
How much of the world has water scarcity?
25%.
111
When does economic water scarcity occur?
When the use of water sources is limited by lack of governance, money, or technology.
112
How many people have economic water scarcity due to poverty and where are they mostly located?
1 billion people, primarily in sub saharan Africa.
113
What does the water poverty index assess?
Resources, access, capacity, use, and environment.
114
Where has the lowest water poverty index and what is it?
Haiti, with a score of 32.7.
115
What is water supply useful for in economic development?
Industry, energy, human well-being, and agriculture.
116
What are the two approaches to managing water supply?
Hard engineering and sustainable schemes.
117
What are the three case studies of hard engineering methods?
China's North to South project, China's Three Gorges Dam, and Saudi Arabia's desalination projects.
118
What is the description of the North to South water transfer scheme?
The Beijing region has 35% of China's population but only 7% of its water. Three routes will be created from the Yangtze River to northern, eastern, and western China, with completion expected by 2050.
119
What are the pros of the North to South water transfer?
Reduces groundwater abstraction and lessens shortages in Beijing to boost economic development.
120
What are the cons of the North to South water transfer?
Costs US$70 billion and will submerge 370 km² of land, relocating over 300,000 people, making it only effective in the short term due to pollutants in the eastern route.
121
What is the description of the Three Gorges Dam?
Designed to control flooding on the Yangtze River, improve water supply by regulating river flow, and generate hydroelectric power.
122
What are the pros of the Three Gorges Dam in China?
Generates hydroelectric power and enables a water surplus to build up, diverted to northern China via the North to South scheme.
123
What are the cons of the Three Gorges Dam?
Displaced 1.3 million people.
124
What is the Three Gorges Dam designed for?
It is designed to control flooding on the Yangtze River, improve water supply by regulating river flow, and generate hydroelectric power.
125
What are the pros of the Three Gorges Dam in China?
Hydroelectric power generation and enables a water surplus to be built up and diverted to northern China via the North to South scheme.
126
What are the cons of the Three Gorges Dam?
- 1.3 million people relocated
- Poor water quality due to decomposing vegetation
- Expensive
- Flooded 622 km² of land
- Social, environmental, and economic costs.
127
What is the purpose of Saudi Arabia's desalination plants?
5 plants opened by 2013 and directly from med sea and aims to provide 70% of isreals domestic water
128
What are the pros of Saudi Arabia's desalination plants?
Reliable and predictable, producing up to 600 tons of potable water per hour.
129
What are the cons of Saudi Arabia's desalination plants?
each plant requires own power staton producing c2 but many are solar. also produces lots of salt and brine which contains antiscaling agents that harm ecosytems so not always sustainable.
- the war is distrupting access
130
What is sustainability?
Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
131
What are the contrasting views of players in water management schemes?
Business owners often conflict with economic players, conflicting hard engineering with sustainable approaches.
132
What is an example of a drainage basin management scheme?
The Colorado Compact - the Colorado River flows through several USA states including California.
133
What are the physical causes and details of California's water insecurity?
- Annual precipitation rates of 200-500 mm
- 65% lost through evapotranspiration, 13% goes to the sea, only 22% left for human use
- 50% of precipitation falls between November and March.
134
What are the human causes of water insecurity in California?
- Population growth of 8 million since the 1900s; projected 45-50 million by 2050
- Imbalance as 3/4 of demand is from the south of Sacramento, which is heavily populated, while 3/4 of precipitation falls in the north.
135
What are the main features of the Colorado Compact river basin management?
In 1992, the river was divided into the upper and lower basin, with a boundary at Lee Ferry. States allocated the right to extract 7.5 million acre-feet annually, with lower basin states allowed an extra 1 million acre-feet.
136
What are the limitations of the Colorado Compact river basin management scheme?
- It does not clarify the water shares of states
- Arizona resisted agreements for years
- us supreme court Resolved disputes in 1963 between california and arizona with formal agreements including Native Americans.
137
What global agreement ensures water peace?
The Berlin Rules replaced the Helsinki Rules in 2004.
138
What are the 9 principles of the Berlin Rules?
1. Participatory water management
2. Coordinated use
3. Integrated management
4. Sustainability (economic, environmental, social)
5. Minimization of environmental harm
6. Cooperation on shared resources
7. Equitable utilization of shared water sources
8. Equitable participation
9. Avoidance of transboundary harm.
139
What are three ways that conflicts over water are reduced?
- Berlin Rules(not legally beinding despite being international law so some govs will not follow)
- Nile Basin Initiative
- Colorado River Compact.
140
What is an example of a local disagreement over water?
Small-scale disputes over groundwater and river rights in small dams.
141
What is an example of a national argument over water?
Most large-scale dam projects lead to national arguments.
142
What is an example of natural unrest related to water?
Water privatization in Bolivia in 2000.
143
What is an example of international tension over water?
The Nile River Basin conflict between Egypt, Sudan, and Ethiopia.
144
What is an example of an international dispute or war over water?
The Jordan River during the 1967 Six-Day War between Israel, Syria, and Sudan.
145
What are two other examples of water conflict agreements?
- Water Framework Directive
- UNECE.
146
What can lead to water conflict?
- Rising demand and falling supply, especially in water-scarce regions
- Transboundary supply issues
- Outdated agreements
- Pre-existing political tensions.
147
What is increasing the chance of water conflict?
Climate change.
148
What percentage of countries share water with at least one other country?
90%.
149
How many countries does the Nile run through?
11.
150
Of all disputes over water between 1948 and 1998, how many ended in military actions?
43 military actions, with 18 involving Israel and its neighbors.
151
What were the timelines for agreements over the Nile transboundary river basin?
-in 1929, the uk awho was the colonial ruler of sudan created the nile agreement between sudan and eygypt, allocating most of the water to them and not considering any ther african states.
-in 1999 the nile basin initiative was created andthe aim was to create sustainable socioeconmic development throiugh equitinle utilaition of and benifit frm the nile basin.
-following this, the Cooperation Frameworkk agreement occured in 2010 which is aimed to be sharing water equall and eydypt and sudan are opposed to.
152
What are the conflicts over water in the Middle East?
- Overconsumption projected to supply 11 million people by 2050
- Growing population at 1.5% annually
- Israel consumes 500 billion more liters than it naturally receives naturallay
- Degradation of existing supplies due to the saltwater encorachment and pollution
- Border disputes and ongoing wars.
153
How is Israel managing water supply conflict?
1. managing limited supplies through efficient techniques by doing stuff like recycling sewage waterfor agriculture and 65% of crops did this annually once. also by reduung agricultyre consumptin and shudting to high tech by relying onimports instead. also getting bettwe treatment plants and conservation techniques. aslo by demand management by chnaging prices and ecosysterm management
2. aquiring new supplies by importing water irch foods whic you would need to use lots of water to grow, saving water which is called virtual water. such as a tonne of wheat from a rick area saves a stressed area 1000m3 of water
154
What are the advantages of the public water supply in Bolivia?
- Increased supply by 16%
- Important for human health.
155
What are the disadvantages of the public water supply in Bolivia?
- Government can only cover 40% of houses due to inefficiency
- Water supplies only available for 2 hours, 3 days a week
- Unable to supply 55% of the population.
156
What are the pros of private water supply in Bolivia?
- If consumption reduces, the government might save money
- LEDCs can call for debt relief
- Can increase coverage
- Connections in La Paz and El Alto increased by 50%.
157
What are the cons of private water supply in Bolivia?
-despite the increased coverage not many can affoord
-it means still less than 20% are connected
-200,000 people are excluded
-causes water privitisation riots
-in chacahamba or remember name choice between spending 20% of wage on water or feeding kids
158
What caused the water riots in Bolivia?
Agua del Tunari owned it and they raised the water prices to pay for dam project it Misicuni.this lead cochabamb having a hard choice between spending 20% of wage to feed kids or get water. this meant thatthere weer 4 days of riots and the death of a 17 year olf, and the Agua Del Tunari contract wa cancelled
159
What health statistic comes from increased sanitation and water quality?
65% reduction in deaths from diarrhea.
160
What is a consequence of increasing water expenses in LICs?
People must buy water from street vendors, costing up to 100 times more than direct supply.
161
What role do the World Bank and IMF play in water costs?
They provide loans to developing countries to privatize water supply systems, but many projects have been canceled due to public pressure.
162
Who are the key players in water in Bolivia?
recently many indigenous fams in el alto above teh capital La paz.
-teh privatised cost of a tap in a home isnteh same as a 6 month wage here
-so people dug 8m wells themselces which are contaminated
-however a christian aid company worked with the gov to stop privitisation and now pop has thousands more taps
-also the gaciers feeding these cities have shrunk more than 1/3rd sice the 1960s due to climate chnage and thsi effects water security in differnt times of the year.
163
What happened with the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam?
the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam was built across the blue nile river in 2011 close to ethiopias border with sudan. eygypt and ethiopia have repeatedly clashed over this
164
Why does Egypt dislike the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam?
because it will reduce the discharge in the blue nile leading to the same in the nile. there is a growing population in eygypt of more than 100million and it is totally reliant on the nile source for more than 90% of its freshwater. also eygypt is heavily based on its agriculture for its industries and have had that irragation for a long time before
165
What is Ethiopia's view on the transboundary GERD?
has a fast groowing pop of almost 100 mil and sees africas largest hydroelectric dam here as a key element in future ec development. it aims to become aafricas biggest power exports
166
What is the capacity of the GERD for Ethiopia?
More than 6000 megawatts.
167
What would happen in Egypt during an extreme drought with the GERD?
1 million jobs would be lost and a $1.6 billion loss to economic output.
168
What did Egypt want from the GERD?
40 billion cubic meters of water and no hydroelectric power generation during droughts.
169
What did Ethiopia want in the GERD negotiations?
To use wind turbines to operate hydroelectric power before the dam filled up in 2021 and 35 billion cubic meters of water.
170
What happened after Egypt dismissed Ethiopia's GERD proposal in 2019?
they tried to have negotiations and meetings in 2020 when the dam was 20% complete. the ethiopian water minister said they were gonns start filling the dam by july either way dismissal of the proposal as unfair
171
Which other country was worried about electricity from the GERD?
Sudan.
172
What is Egypt's projected population by 2050?
150 million.
173
What percentage of the Nile Basin is currently used by Egypt?
94%, despite most of the water originating from other countries. but 3/4 of it origionates elsewhere
174
Which other country needs water from the Nile for tourism and farming?
Kenya.
175
Who has dominant power in the Nile conflict?
Egypt, due to its military strength.
176
What are the two types of sustainable management schemes for water supply?
Recycling water and rain harvesting.
177
What is an example of recycling water as a sustainable management scheme?
Singapore's National Water Agency invested in NEwater, which involves collecting rainwater through drains. there is teh NE water app
178
What is NEwater?
A system with 4 plants that can meet up to 30% of the population's needs, cleaned by UV disinfection and safe membrane purification.
179
What are the cons of recycling water as a sustainable management scheme?
NEwater is expensive, costing triple the price of importing from Malaysia.
180
What is an example of rain harvesting as a sustainable management scheme?
Water Aid (interational ngo) provided the uganda town of Kitayita where before 3000 people lacked access to safe water the local builders training in the construction of harvesting jars designed to colect water for drier periods and stop peop;e travelling such long distances and so girls could go to school.
181
What was the litre capacity of the harvesting jars in Kitayita?
1,500 litres.
182
What are the cons of rain harvesting as a sustainable management scheme?
Jars could get contaminated by feces, spreading illness and disease.
183
What are some economic problems with inadequate water supply?
- Cash crops grown for money
- Migration
- Inability to produce goods for sale.
184
What are some environmental problems with inadequate water supply?
- Hydroelectric power cannot be utilized
- Desertification.
185
How will climate change influence water flows and stores in Alaska?
-warmed twice as fast as rest of the nation
-positive feedback loop of melting sea ice and albedo effect
-7 septembers with the lowers sea ice in past 7 yeras
-rising ocean temps
-precipitation will increase by 15% by late century
186
What is an example of flooding in a HIC country?
The 2011 flood in Australia.
187
What were the human and meteorological causes of the 2011 flood in Australia?
- Human: Urban sprawl developed floodplains
- Meteorological: The La Niña effect.
188
How did the 2011 flood in Australia occur?
Brisbane experienced a 40% increase in rainfall, and the Wivenhoe reservoir had to release water.
189
What was an environmental impact of the 2011 flood in Australia?
90% of the Brisbane River was damaged, with dead mangroves affecting fish nurseries.
190
What were the socioeconomic impacts of the 2011 flood in Australia?
60 schools damaged and $800 million in damages in Brisbane.
191
How many were killed and evacuated in the 2011 flood in Australia?
40,000 evacuated, no deaths in Brisbane, but 22 deaths in Queensland.
192
What is an example of a flood in a LIC country?
The Pakistan flood in 2011.
193
What were the meteorological causes of the Pakistan flood in 2011?
meteerological:
monsoon season and also la nina effect is amplified as ocean has warmed 2 degrees in the past 30 years
194
How much of Pakistan was affected by the flood?
1/3 of the country.
195
What was the socioeconomic loss due to the Pakistan flood in 2011?
Agriculture faced a $1 billion loss, with 70% of the population working in agriculture.
196
What are the impacts of drought on wetland ecosystems?
-nesting sites of swallows decline so pop reduces
-reduced aquatic birds like ducks
-thrush will decline due to dry soil and limiting penetrable anility for them to feed on invertibrates such as worms
197
what is ecosystem functioning
The biological, chemical and physical processes that take place within an ecosystem
198
what is ecosystem resilience
the ability of an ecosystem to return to its original conditions after a major disturbance (wind storm, fire, flood, clear-cutting, etc.)
199
why are deserts or semi arid conditions most resilient to dorught
due to adapted animals like the fennec fox with large ears t radiate heat through capilliries and adapted cactus with waxy skin (to reduce exapotranspiration)
200
effect of drought on forest ecosystems
-between 2000 and 2003 drought led to die off of Pinon pines ina region in south west usa. this was due to them being more susceptable to pine bark beetle attacks in raised heat and this killed 90 percent of these trees
201
What meteorological events were amplified in 2011?
The monsoon season and the La Niña effect were amplified due to the ocean warming by 2 degrees in the past 30 years.
202
How much of the country was affected by the Pakistan flood in 2011?
1/3 of the country was affected.
203
What was the socioeconomic loss due to the Pakistan flood in 2011?
Agriculture faced a 1 billion dollar loss, and 70% of the population works in agriculture.
204
What is the ITCZ?
The Intertropical Convergence Zone, where there is the most solar radiation—also known as the thermal equator.
205
What happens in the ITCZ between March and June?
It moves north towards the Tropic of Cancer (23 degrees).
206
What happens in the ITCZ between September and December?
It moves south towards the Tropic of Capricorn (23 degrees).
207
Why are there deserts at 30 degrees north and south of the equator?
Because it is an area of low pressure due to the Hadley cell redistributing hot air from the equator.
208
How does the ITCZ affect rainfall?
when it is overhead it causes an area of low pressure and rapidly rising air due to most insolation so in the north teher si floods in march to june and south therer is floods in sept to dec.
209
What does the movement of the ITCZ mean?
It results in wet and dry seasons, such as the monsoon season.
210
What does failure of the ITCZ cause?
It can lead to unpredictable droughts.
211
How do mid-latitude blocking cyclones lead to drought?
They block low-pressure depressions and the polar jet stream, causing dry conditions.
212
How much percent of water in the hydrological system is in the ocean?
96.9% with a residence time of 3,600 years.
213
How much percent of water in the hydrological system is in the ice caps and glaciers?
1.9% with a residence time of 15,000 years.
214
How much percent of water in the hydrological system is in groundwater?
1.1% with a residence time of up to 10,000 years.
215
What water store has the largest percent of water and the longest residence time?
Oceans have the largest percent, and ice caps have the longest residence time.
216
What is an example of human disruption to a water drainage basin?
Land use change in the Amazon for farming, losing the size of a football field every second, with the Tocantins River showing a 25% increase in discharge between 1960 and 1979.
217
How did the river regime of the Nile change?
Flow reduced by 65% due to the Aswan Dam.
218
What is an example of over-abstraction of groundwater?
China uses 40% of its groundwater for irrigation.
219
What is the water budget difference in monthly evaporation in Barrow, Alaska, in January compared to Cairo, Egypt?
0mm in Barrow and 22mm in Cairo.
220
What is the mean monthly difference in water budget of precipitation compared between Cairo, Egypt, and Barrow, Alaska, in July?
24mm in Barrow and 0mm in Cairo.
221
How many green roofs are there in London?
There are around 700 green roofs in London.
222
Why does the price of water vary?
-due to in developing countries they are often using water vedours which are 100 times more epensive
-the imf is giving funds for privitisation which for example in bolivia causes issues with the expense
-haiti has the highest water poverty index due to corruption of government
-demand increasing- 1 in 30 americans have pools in their garden
-cost for infastracstucture such as the 1.3 billion dollar price of the Boundary Dam in canada which a gov like haiti would not invest in
223
What are the future patterns of water stress predicted for 2040?
-middle east will have a high 80+ ratio of withdrawal to supply due to conflict
-egypt etc will have the same due to transboundary conlfict perhaps due to grand renaissance ethiopian dam
-US will be high 40-80% ratio of withdrawal to supply and so will china
- this is all exagerated due to climate change
224
What is an la nina year?
in the pacific ocean, trade winds move from east to west, meaning that there is low air pressure in australia and this warmer water cools and condenses forming clouds and high precippitation. it beings flooding to the west and drought potential to the east as south america is left with decending air and high pressure. for example australias flood in 2011 flood
225
What is a el nino year?
in the pacific ocean, trade winds go from west to east meaning that it brings low pressure to areas in the east like south america and increased risks of floodinng through higher precipitation. however in the west it is left with sinking air currents and areas of high pressure which can often inflict drought. for example the big dry in austalia in 2006
226
how to remember which direction in the enso cycles
a normal year is NEW from east to west. el nino is opposite of this and a la nina is a strong version of a normal year
227
how long is the enso cycle
a 7 year period
228
what is river discharge
surface flow
229
what is orographic rainfall
when mountanous areas are close to prevailing winds and moist air is forced over high ground producing clouds and precipitation
230
what is frontal rainfall
warm air meets a cold air in mid latitudes between polar and tropical air. teh warmer ansd less dense tropics air is lifted over the vold air creating a front. this makes the warm air cool and turn into precip. this can be on a large scale
231
what is convectional rainfall
made from cumulus clouds when they are in an unstable atmophere when rising boyant bubbles or air occur. when this meets and cools teh airrm it produces rapid precipitation
232
what effect occurs in orographic and frontal rainfall
the feeder seeder effect which leads to 10x as much rainfall in high ground than low ground
233
