cardiovascular and lymphoid system Flashcards

Question

What are the three main surfaces of the heart?

Answer 1

Sternocostal surface (anterior) Mediastinal surface (posterior) Diaphragmatic surface (inferior)

Answer 2

Truncus Arteriosus → Ascending aorta and pulmonary trunk Bulbus Cordis → Right ventricle Primitive Ventricle → Left ventricle Primitive Atrium → Anterior parts of both atria and auricles Sinus Venosus → Posterior right atrium, SA node, and coronary sinus

Answer 3

Right border → Right atrium Inferior border → Left and Right ventricles Left border → Left ventricle Superior border → Right and Left atria, along with the great vessels

Answer 4

From mesoderm around 18–19 days after fertilization. → Begins pumping blood around 21–22 days after fertilization.

Answer 5

Cardiogenic area forms near the head of the embryo. Cardiogenic cords develop. Endocardial tubes form from the cords. The two tubes fuse to form one primitive heart tube.

Answer 6

Around 23–28 days after fertilization.

Answer 7

Four chambers: Two Atria (Right and Left) Two Ventricles (Right and Left

Answer 8

Septation and valve formation begin. Remodeling of the chambers. Partitioning of atria and ventricles.

Answer 9

Tricuspid valves → 5th to 8th week Semilunar valves → 5th to 9th week

Answer 10

Blood enters the Atria, passes through the Atrioventricular valves into the Ventricles, and is then pumped into the arteries. → Left Ventricle → Aorta → Systemic Circulation → Right Ventricle → Pulmonary Artery → Pulmonary Circulation

Answer 11

The Cristae Terminalis, a muscular ridge.

Answer 12

Interatrial septum → Separates the right and left atria Interventricular septum → Separates the right and left ventricles

Answer 13

Oxygenated blood from the four pulmonary veins

Answer 14

Deoxygenated blood from the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava and the Coronary sinus.

Answer 15

Sinus Venarum → Smooth-walled region that receives blood from the vena cavae Atrium Proper → Anterior region with rough pectinate muscles

Answer 16

The left atrium.

Answer 17

Inflow tract → Located posteroinferiorly, covered with trabeculae carneae Outflow tract (Conus Arteriosus/Infundibulum) → Funnel-shaped, smooth-walled, located anterosuperiorly

Answer 18

The valve of the Foramen Ovale, visible near the interatrial septum.

Answer 19

Ridges → Attach along their length Bridges → Attached at both ends but free in the middle Pillars (Papillary muscles) → Anchored at the base, connected to chordae tendineae

Answer 20

Conical-shaped, divided into: Inflow tract → Covered with trabeculae carneae Outflow tract (Aortic Vestibule) → Smooth-walled, leads to the aorta

Answer 21

The Mitral (Bicuspid) valve.

Answer 22

Two papillary muscles: Anterior papillary muscle → Arises from the sternocostal surface Posterior papillary muscle → Arises from the diaphragmatic surface

Answer 23

Membranous part → Thin (1 mm thick) Muscular part → Thicker (~1.2 cm)

Answer 24

The septal leaflet of the tricuspid valve

Answer 25

Atrioventricular Valves Tricuspid valve → Right atrium to right ventricle Mitral (Bicuspid) valve → Left atrium to left ventricle Semilunar Valves Pulmonary valve → Right ventricle to pulmonary artery Aortic valve → Left ventricle to aorta

Answer 26

Three cusps: Anterior, posterior, and septal.

Answer 27

Made of connective tissue covered by endocardium Chordae tendineae arise from the free margins and inferior surfaces Supported by papillary muscles

Answer 28

Two cusps: Anteromedial and posterolateral.

Answer 29

Epicardium → Outer layer Myocardium → Middle muscular layer Endocardium → Inner endothelial layer

Answer 30

They have three cusps with nodules in the center and thin crescent-shaped rims called lunules.

Answer 31

At the junction of ventricles and arteries: Pulmonary valve → Between right ventricle and pulmonary trunk Aortic valve → Between left ventricle and ascending aorta

Answer 32

Aortic sinuses, from which the coronary arteries arise.

Answer 33

Cardiac muscle → Large involuntary striated muscle fibers supported by a collagen framework.

Answer 34

The outer surface of the myocardium Lined with a shiny, smooth surface of simple squamous epithelium Formed by mesothelium, connective tissue, and a subepicardial fat layer The connective tissue secretes lubricating fluid into the pericardial cavity

Answer 35

It is responsible for the contraction of the heart, pumping blood throughout the body.

Answer 36

It consists of two layers: Superficial layer → Extends over both atria, thicker on the anterior side. Deep layer → Contains looped fibers that pass around the atrioventricular orifices and veins.

Answer 37

Subepicardial layer → Right atrium: fibers run horizontally. Left atrium: fibers run longitudinally towards the diaphragm. At the apex, forms the vortex of the heart. Middle layer → Present in the left ventricle and interventricular septum. Subendocardial layer → Forms the trabeculae carneae and papillary muscles.

Answer 38

The inner lining of the myocardium Consists of endothelial cells (simple squamous epithelium) and loose connective tissue It lines the heart chambers and valves Involved in regulating contraction and cardiac embryological development

Answer 39

A high-density connective tissue structure that: Forms and anchors the valves Insulates electrical impulses between atria and ventricles Maintains the integrity of the valve openings

Answer 40

Right Fibrous Trigone → Where the aortic valve, tricuspid valve, and mitral valve meet. Left Fibrous Trigone → Where the aortic valve and mitral valve meet.

Answer 41

No, the pulmonary valve is not anchored by any significant extension of cardiac muscle.

Answer 42

The coronary arteries, which branch off from the aortic sinus of the ascending aorta.

Answer 43

Two main coronary arteries: Right Coronary Artery (RCA) Left Coronary Artery (LCA) → Both arise from the aortic sinuses of the ascending aorta.

Answer 44

During diastole when the heart is relaxed → Blood backflows, filling the valve pockets and entering the coronary arteries.

Answer 45

Initially covered by the right auricle Distributes branches to the right atrium and anterior surface of the right ventricle Gives off the right marginal artery Travels in the coronary sulcus to the posterior interventricular sulcus Terminates as the posterior interventricular artery

Answer 46

Right atrium Conducting system (SA and AV nodes) Right ventricle Posterior part of the interventricular septum Adjacent diaphragmatic surface of the heart

Answer 47

Passes between the pulmonary trunk and left auricle Divides into: Anterior interventricular artery → Travels in the anterior interventricular sulcus Circumflex artery → Runs posteriorly in the coronary sulcus

Answer 48

Left ventricle (most of it) Anterior portion of the interventricular septum Part of the right ventricle Sternocostal surface of the heart Left atrium

Answer 49

Five main tributaries drain into the coronary sinus, which then empties into the right atrium.

Answer 50

Great Cardiac Vein Originates from the apex of the heart Follows the anterior interventricular groove into the coronary sulcus Small Cardiac Vein Located on the anterior surface Passes around the right side to join the coronary sinus Middle Cardiac Vein Drains the right side Runs along the posterior surface of the heart Left Marginal Vein Drains the left posterior side of the heart Left Posterior Ventricular Vein Located in the center, runs along the posterior interventricular sulcus to join the coronary sinus

Answer 51

It consists of specialized cardiac muscle cells that generate and conduct rhythmic impulses to stimulate the beating of the heart.

Answer 52

Sinoatrial (SA) Node Atrioventricular (AV) Node Bundle of His (AV Bundle) Purkinje Fibers

Answer 53

In two nodular structures: Sinoatrial (SA) Node Atrioventricular (AV) Node

Answer 54

It is the cardiac pacemaker that initiates the action potential causing the atria to contract.

Answer 55

Beneath the epicardium on the posterior surface of the right atrium, near the opening of the superior vena cava in the sulcus terminalis cordis

Answer 56

It is 10 mm long and spindle-shaped.

Answer 57

It receives impulses from the atria, delays the signal to allow complete atrial contraction, and then transmits the impulse to the ventricles.

Answer 58

In the interatrial septum, between the coronary sinus and the septal cusps of the tricuspid valve — also known as the Triangle of Koch.

Answer 59

Approximately 5 mm long.

Answer 60

It is a direct continuation of the AV node that carries impulses to the Purkinje fibers, spreading the electrical signal to the ventricles.

Answer 61

It splits into two branches: Right Bundle Branch → Travels downwards into the septomarginal trabeculae to reach the anterior papillary muscle. Peripheral branches form the subendocardial plexus. Left Bundle Branch → Fans out as a flat bundle along the interventricular septum. Divides into two major branches to supply the papillary muscles and form the subendocardial network.

Answer 62

They are modified cardiac muscle fibers that arise from the bundle branches of the Bundle of His.

Answer 63

They spread the impulse throughout the ventricular myocardium, ensuring coordinated contraction of the ventricles.

Answer 64

They have high glycogen accumulation in the central portion of the cell, making them more resistant to fatigue.

Answer 65

Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues of the body.

Answer 66

Tunica Intima → Innermost layer, composed of endothelium and a thin layer of connective tissue. Tunica Media → Middle layer, composed mainly of smooth muscle and elastic fibers. Tunica Adventitia (Externa) → Outer layer, consisting of connective tissue, collagen fibers, and nerve fibers.

Answer 67

Elastic Arteries → Large arteries like the aorta and pulmonary arteries, which contain many elastic fibers for stretching and recoiling. Muscular Arteries → Medium-sized arteries with more smooth muscle, controlling blood flow and pressure. Arterioles → Smallest arteries that lead into the capillaries and regulate resistance and pressure

Answer 68

They regulate blood flow into the capillary networks through vasoconstriction and vasodilation.

Answer 69

Veins carry deoxygenated blood from tissues back to the heart.

Answer 70

Tunica Intima → Contains endothelium and valves to prevent backflow. Tunica Media → Thinner than in arteries, contains smooth muscle. Tunica Adventitia (Externa) → Thicker than in arteries, composed of connective tissue.

Answer 71

Large Veins → Include the superior and inferior vena cava. Medium Veins → Found alongside muscular arteries, with valves to prevent backflow. Venules → Small veins that collect blood from capillaries and drain into larger veins.

Answer 72

They prevent backflow of blood, especially in the lower extremities against gravity.

Answer 73

Wall Thickness → Arteries have thicker walls than veins. Lumen Size → Veins have a wider lumen. Valves → Veins have valves, arteries do not. Elasticity → Arteries are more elastic to accommodate pressure surges.

Answer 74

Arteries, due to direct pumping from the heart.

Answer 75

They allow exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood and tissues.

Answer 76

Capillaries have one single layer of endothelial cells.

Answer 77

Continuous Capillaries → Found in muscles and nervous tissue, with uninterrupted lining. Fenestrated Capillaries → Found in kidneys and intestines, with small pores for increased permeability. Sinusoidal Capillaries → Found in the liver and bone marrow, with large gaps to allow passage of large molecules.

Answer 78

Tunica Interna (Intima) Tunica Media (Media) Tunica Externa (Adventitia)

Answer 79

It is the innermost layer of the blood vessel wall. Composed of simple squamous epithelium (endothelium) arranged longitudinally. Rests on a basement membrane. Contains a subendothelial layer of connective tissue.

Answer 80

A fenestrated elastic membrane called the internal elastic membrane.

Answer 81

It is the middle layer of the vessel wall. Composed of smooth muscle cells arranged in concentric spirals. Contains elastic fibers interwoven with the smooth muscle. It is thicker in arteries than in veins.

Answer 82

It regulates the luminal diameter of the vessel, allowing it to adjust shape in response to blood pressure changes.

Answer 83

It is the outermost layer of the vessel wall. Consists of connective tissue with collagen fibers and elastic fibers. In veins, it also includes smooth muscle cells arranged longitudinally.

Answer 84

It provides structural support and protection to the vessel, and anchors it to surrounding tissues.

Answer 85

Capillaries have very thin walls, composed of only endothelial cells. They lack tunica media and tunica externa.

Answer 86

Approximately 5–7 micrometers in width.

Answer 87

They connect arteries and veins and allow for the exchange of gases, nutrients, and waste products between blood and tissues.

Answer 88

It carries deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and then returns oxygenated blood back to the heart to be pumped through systemic circulation.

Answer 89

Pulmonary Artery → Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs. Capillaries → Surround the alveoli in the lungs, allowing for gas exchange. Pulmonary Vein → Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the left atrium.

Answer 90

Superior and Inferior Vena Cava bring deoxygenated blood from the body to the right atrium. Blood flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. When the right ventricle contracts, blood is pushed through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery carries the blood to the lungs.

Answer 91

In the lungs, gas exchange occurs in the alveolar capillaries. Carbon dioxide is removed from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed.

Answer 92

Oxygenated blood from the lungs travels through the pulmonary veins. It enters the left atrium. It flows through the mitral (bicuspid) valve into the left ventricle. Finally, it is pumped out through the aortic valve into the aorta for systemic circulation.

Answer 93

Pulmonary circulation operates under lower pressure compared to the systemic circulation.

Answer 94

To carry deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs for oxygenation and then return oxygenated blood back to the heart to be pumped through systemic circulation.

Answer 95

The lungs are closer to the heart, and the capillary network is delicate, requiring less pressure for efficient gas exchange.

Answer 96

Pulmonary capillaries have thin walls for efficient diffusion of gases. The alveolar-capillary membrane is highly permeable to both oxygen and carbon dioxide.

Answer 97

Pulmonary Artery → Carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs. Capillaries → Surround the alveoli in the lungs, allowing for gas exchange. Pulmonary Vein → Carries oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the left atrium.

Answer 98

Superior and Inferior Vena Cava bring deoxygenated blood from the body to the right atrium. Blood flows through the tricuspid valve into the right ventricle. When the right ventricle contracts, blood is pushed through the pulmonary valve into the pulmonary artery. The pulmonary artery carries the blood to the lungs.

Answer 99

In the lungs, gas exchange occurs in the alveolar capillaries. Carbon dioxide is removed from the blood, and oxygen is absorbed.

Answer 100

Oxygenated blood from the lungs travels through the pulmonary veins. It enters the left atrium. It flows through the mitral (bicuspid) valve into the left ventricle. Finally, it is pumped out through the aortic valve into the aorta for systemic circulation.

Answer 101

The pulmonary trunk leaves the right ventricle and bifurcates into: Right Pulmonary Artery → Supplies the right lung Left Pulmonary Artery → Supplies the left lung

Answer 102

There are typically four pulmonary veins (two from each lung) that directly enter the left atrium.

Answer 103

They have thinner walls and less smooth muscle compared to systemic arteries, allowing for easy expansion during blood flow.

Answer 104

It carries deoxygenated blood instead of oxygenated blood, and its walls are thinner and more elastic.

Answer 105

Composed of a single layer of endothelial cells. Thin walls to facilitate gas exchange. Surrounded by Type I and Type II alveolar cells for oxygen absorption and surfactant production.

Answer 106

It carries oxygenated blood instead of deoxygenated blood back to the left atrium.

Answer 107

A mechanism where pulmonary arterioles constrict in response to low oxygen levels (hypoxia), diverting blood to better-ventilated areas of the lung.

Answer 108

Pulmonary vessels dilate, and capillary recruitment increases to accommodate the elevated cardiac output.

Answer 109

Sympathetic stimulation → Mild vasoconstriction Parasympathetic stimulation → Mild vasodilation

Answer 110

It rises from the left ventricle of the heart.

Answer 111

Ascending Aorta Aortic Arch Descending Aorta

Answer 112

Right Coronary Artery Left Coronary Artery

Answer 113

They supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle (myocardium).

Answer 114

Brachiocephalic Trunk → Divides into: Right Subclavian Artery → Supplies the right arm Right Common Carotid Artery → Supplies the right side of the head and neck Left Common Carotid Artery → Supplies the left side of the head and neck Left Subclavian Artery → Supplies the left arm

Answer 115

It is located in the superior mediastinum, curving over the left main bronchus and the pulmonary trunk.

Answer 116

Thoracic Aorta Abdominal Aorta

Answer 117

From the aortic arch to the aortic hiatus of the diaphragm.

Answer 118

Parietal Branches → Segmental branches called posterior intercostal arteries (spaces 3–11) Subcostal Artery Superior Phrenic Artery Visceral Branches → Smaller arteries supplying thoracic organs

Answer 119

It begins at the aortic hiatus of the diaphragm and ends at the L4 vertebral level, where it bifurcates into the common iliac arteries.

Answer 120

It arises from the common carotid artery at the level of the fourth cervical vertebra (C4), within the carotid triangle of the neck.

Answer 121

Celiac Trunk → Divides into: Left Gastric Artery Common Hepatic Artery Splenic Artery Superior Mesenteric Artery (SMA) → Supplies midgut structures Inferior Mesenteric Artery (IMA) → Supplies hindgut structures Middle Suprarenal Arteries → Supplies the adrenal glands Renal Arteries → Supplies the kidneys Ovarian/Testicular Arteries → Supplies the gonads

Answer 122

Inferior Phrenic Artery Lumbar Arteries Medial Sacral Artery

Answer 123

It is a major artery of the head and neck.

Answer 124

To vascularize the external portions of the head and neck.

Answer 125

Superior Thyroid Artery → Supplies the thyroid gland Hyoid, Sternocleidomastoid, Superior Laryngeal, Cricothyroid branches Lingual Artery → Supplies the tongue, specifically the Genioglossus muscle Sublingual and Deep Lingual branches Facial Artery → Supplies the superficial face Ascending Palatine, Tonsillar, Submental, Glandular, Inferior Labial, Superior Labial, Lateral Nasal, and Angular (terminal branch) Ascending Pharyngeal Artery → Supplies the pharynx Occipital Artery → Supplies the scalp and occipital bone Posterior Auricular Artery → Supplies the scalp posterior to the auricle and the auricle itself Maxillary Artery → Supplies deep structures of the face 16 branches including Tympanic, Deep Auricular, Meningeal, Deep Temporal, and Infraorbital Superficial Temporal Artery → Supplies the temple and scalp Transverse Facial, Middle Temporal, Anterior Auricular, Frontal, and Parietal branches

Answer 126

It curves backward behind the posterior belly of the digastric muscle and the stylohyoid muscle, entering the space behind the neck of the mandible, where it begins to branch.

Answer 127

It begins at the upper border of the thyroid cartilage.

Answer 128

It is a major artery of the head and neck that supplies blood to the brain.

Answer 129

Four segments: Cervical Segment Petrous Segment Cavernous Segment Cerebral Segment

Answer 130

After it perforates the dura mater on the medial side of the anterior clinoid process, the artery passes between the optic nerve and oculomotor nerve.

Answer 131

It arises from the common carotid artery, which bifurcates into the external and internal carotid arteries at the level of the fourth cervical vertebra (C4) within the carotid triangle of the neck.

Answer 132

It enters the carotid canal in the petrous part of the temporal bone, ascends, curves forward and medially, and then enters the cranial cavity.

Answer 133

It begins at the upper border of the thyroid cartilage at the carotid bifurcation and runs upward in front of the transverse processes until it enters the carotid canal in the skull, anterior to the jugular foramen.

Answer 134

Caroticotympanic Arteries → Enters the tympanic cavity and anastomoses with the anterior tympanic branch of the internal maxillary and the stylomastoid artery branch of the posterior auricular. Artery of the Pterygoid Canal → Passes into the pterygoid canal and anastomoses with a branch of the internal maxillary artery.

Answer 135

Cavernous Arteries → Supply the hypophysis, semilunar ganglion, and the walls of the cavernous and inferior petrosal sinus. Hypophyseal Arteries → Small vessels supplying the hypophysis. Semilunar Arteries → Small vessels supplying the semilunar ganglion. Anterior Meningeal Arteries → Pass over the wing of the sphenoid to supply the dura mater of the anterior cranial fossa.

Answer 136

It lies between the layers of the dura mater within the cavernous sinus. → It is surrounded by sympathetic nerve filaments.

Answer 137

Ophthalmic Artery → Enters the orbital cavity through the optic foramen. Divides into frontal and dorsal nasal terminal branches. Anterior Cerebral Artery → Passes above the optic nerve, connects to the anterior communicating artery, and anastomoses with the posterior cerebral arteries. Supplies the medial surface of the cerebral hemisphere. Middle Cerebral Artery → The largest branch of the internal carotid. Travels in the lateral cerebral fissure and supplies the lateral surface of the cerebral hemisphere. Posterior Communicating Artery → Runs backward from the internal carotid and anastomoses with the posterior cerebral artery (branch of the basilar artery). Choroidal Artery → Small artery that enters the inferior horn of the lateral ventricle and ends in the choroid plexus.

Answer 138

It is a branch of the internal carotid artery that supplies all the structures of the orbit, as well as parts of the nose, face, and meninges.

Answer 139

It arises from the internal carotid artery as it emerges from the cavernous sinus.

Answer 140

It is the larger of the two terminal branches of the external carotid artery, arising behind the neck of the mandible.

Answer 141

Central Artery of the Retina First branch of the ophthalmic artery. Turns superiorly, penetrates the optic nerve, and enters the eye to supply the inner retinal layers. Lacrimal Artery One of the largest branches. Branches as the ophthalmic artery enters the orbit. Supplies the lacrimal gland, eyelids, and conjunctiva. Posterior Ciliary Arteries Typically 1 to 5 arteries that perforate the sclera near the optic nerve. Two types: Long Posterior Ciliary Arteries → Supply the ciliary body and iris. Short Posterior Ciliary Arteries → Supply the choroid and optic disc. Muscular Branches Supply the extraocular muscles of the eye. Supraorbital Artery Passes over the optic nerve, through the supraorbital foramen. Supplies the muscles and skin of the forehead. Ethmoidal Arteries Posterior Ethmoidal Artery → Enters the nose via the posterior ethmoidal canal, supplies the posterior ethmoidal sinuses. Anterior Ethmoidal Artery → Supplies the anterior ethmoidal sinuses and parts of the nasal cavity. Both contribute to the meningeal supply.

Answer 142

Supratrochlear Artery Supplies the forehead and scalp. Dorsal Nasal Artery Supplies the forehead and scalp and anastomoses with the angular artery.

Answer 143

Mandibular Part → Winds around the neck of the mandible. Pterygoid Part → Travels between the two heads of the lateral pterygoid muscle. Pterygopalatine Part → Located in the pterygoid fossa.

Answer 144

Initially imbedded in the parotid gland. Passes between the ramus of the mandible and the sphenomandibular ligament. Travels between the two heads of the pterygoid muscle into the pterygoid fossa, where it gives off its terminal branches.

Answer 145

Deep Auricular Artery Supplies the external acoustic meatus. Anterior Tympanic Artery Courses near the tympanic membrane, passes through the petrotympanic fissure to supply the middle ear. Middle Meningeal Artery Passes through the foramen spinosum, supplies the skull and dura mater. Inferior Alveolar Artery Runs with the inferior alveolar nerve; supplies the pulps of teeth and mandible. Mental branch → Supplies the lip and skin in the mental region. Accessory Meningeal Artery Supplies the trigeminal ganglion and dura mater of the middle cranial fossa. Passes through the foramen ovale.

Answer 146

Sphenopalatine Artery Supplies the nasal cavity through the sphenopalatine foramen. Descending Palatine Artery Divides into greater and lesser palatine arteries, supplying the hard and soft palate. Travels through the greater palatine canal with branches of the pterygopalatine ganglion. Infraorbital Artery Passes through the inferior orbital fissure and emerges with the infraorbital nerve on the face. Posterior Superior Alveolar Artery Supplies the maxillary teeth and posterior wall of the maxilla. Middle Superior Alveolar Artery Supplies the pharynx and the roof of the nose. Artery of the Pterygoid Canal

Answer 147

Masseteric Artery Runs with the lingual nerve and supplies the masseter muscle. Pterygoid Artery Supplies the lateral and medial pterygoid muscles. Deep Temporal Artery Divides into anterior and posterior branches, supplying the temporalis muscle. Communicates with the lacrimal artery and perforates the zygomatic bone. Buccinator Artery Supplies the buccinator muscle; anastomoses with the infraorbital artery.

Answer 148

They are paired major arteries of the thorax, located just below the clavicle.

Answer 149

Right Subclavian Artery → Branches from the brachiocephalic trunk, which is a branch of the aortic arch. Left Subclavian Artery → Comes directly off the aortic arch.

Answer 150

Vertebral Artery Ascends to the transverse foramen of C6 Continues through the foramina of C1 to C6 Enters the foramen magnum to supply the brainstem and anastomose with the internal carotid. Internal Thoracic Artery Descends behind the sternum and costal cage. Branches into: Superior Epigastric Artery → Supplies the anterior abdominal wall and part of the diaphragm. Pericardiophrenic Artery → Supplies the pericardium. Musculophrenic Artery → Supplies the diaphragm. Thyrocervical Trunk Ascends and gives off four branches: Suprascapular Artery → Supplies supraspinatus, sternocleidomastoid, and subclavius. Transverse Cervical Artery → Supplies the trapezius and sternocleidomastoid. Inferior Thyroid Artery → Supplies the thyroid gland. Ascending Cervical Artery → Anastomoses with the ascending pharyngeal and occipital arteries.

Answer 151

Thoracic Region → Medial to the scalenus anterior muscle Muscular Region → Behind the anterior scalene muscle Cervical Region → Lateral to the scalene muscle but before crossing the first rib

Answer 152

It passes between the anterior and middle scalene muscles. → This is different from the subclavian vein, which is anterior to the anterior scalene.

Answer 153

When it crosses the lateral border of the first rib.

Answer 154

Costocervical Trunk Divides into: Supreme Intercostal Artery → Supplies the upper two intercostal spaces, deep neck, back skin, and vertebral canal. Deep Cervical Artery → Supplies the deep neck musculature.

Answer 155

No, the cervical region does not give off any branches.

Answer 156

It is the continuation of the subclavian artery that travels through the axilla and supplies the upper limb, as well as musculocutaneous elements of the scapula and upper thorax.

Answer 157

It begins at the outer border of the first rib as a continuation of the subclavian artery.

Answer 158

It sits within a neurovascular bundle formed by the artery and the cords of the brachial plexus, enclosed by the axillary fascia.

Answer 159

It is divided into three segments by the pectoralis minor muscle: First Segment → 1 branch Second Segment → 2 branches Third Segment → 3 branches

Answer 160

It becomes the brachial artery.

Answer 161

Mnemonic: Some Australian Llamas Support Australian Proletarians Superior Thoracic Artery → Supplies the first two intercostal spaces and upper part of the serratus anterior. Acromiothoracic Artery → Supplies the pectoralis muscles, deltoid, and clavicle region. Lateral Thoracic Artery → Supplies the lateral chest wall and mammary glands. Subscapular Artery → Supplies the subscapularis muscle, teres major, and latissimus dorsi. Anterior Circumflex Humeral Artery → Wraps around the surgical neck of the humerus. Posterior Circumflex Humeral Artery → Larger than the anterior, supplies the deltoid, teres minor, and glenohumeral joint.

Answer 162

It is the continuation of the axillary artery after the inferior border of teres major.

Answer 163

It ends at the popliteal fossa at the elbow, where it bifurcates into the radial and ulnar arteries

Answer 164

It travels along the brachial region, running with the median nerve and brachial vein.

Answer 165

It supplies blood to the brachial region and maintains a superficial course just beneath the deep fascia.

Answer 166

Profunda Brachii Artery (Deep Brachial Artery) Passes posteriorly to supply the posterior arm. Terminates in radial and middle collateral arteries that anastomose with ulnar collateral arteries. Humeral Nutrient Artery Supplies the humerus. Superior Ulnar Collateral Artery Runs along the ulnar nerve and supplies the elbow joint. Inferior Ulnar Collateral Artery Assists in vascularization of the elbow region. Terminal Branches → Radial Artery and Ulnar Artery Radial → Supplies the lateral forearm and hand. Ulnar → Supplies the medial forearm and hand.

Answer 167

It is the main artery of the lateral aspect of the forearm, arising from the bifurcation of the brachial artery in the cubital fossa.

Answer 168

It runs along the anterior portion of the radius, beneath the brachioradialis. At the distal forearm, it lies lateral to the flexor carpi radialis tendon. It winds around the lateral aspect of the radius near the wrist. Crosses the floor of the anatomical snuff box and passes through the heads of the first dorsal interosseous muscle.

Answer 169

Radial Recurrent Artery Travels superiorly to anastomose with the radial collateral artery around the elbow joint. Palmar Carpal Branch Near the border of pronator quadratus. Runs across the wrist and anastomoses with the palmar carpal branch of the ulnar artery to supply the carpal bones and joints. Superficial Palmar Branch Passes through the thenar muscles (medial) and anastomoses with the superficial palmar arch. Supplies the thumb and lateral part of the index finger (1½ digits). Deep Palmar Branch Contributes to the deep palmar arch.

Answer 170

It is the main artery of the medial aspect of the forearm, arising from the bifurcation of the brachial artery in the cubital fossa.

Answer 171

It descends along the anteromedial part of the forearm, running deep to the flexor digitorum superficialis, pronator teres, and flexor carpi radialis. It lies on top of brachialis and flexor digitorum profundus. Passes superficially to the transverse carpal ligament, not part of the carpal tunnel. Travels through Guyon's Canal alongside the ulnar vein and ulnar nerve.

Answer 172

Roof → Superficial palmar carpal ligament Medial Border → Pisiform Lateral Border → Hamate Floor → Pisohamate ligament

Answer 173

Anterior Ulnar Recurrent Artery → Anastomoses with the ulnar collateral branch of the deep brachial artery. Posterior Ulnar Recurrent Artery → Also anastomoses with the ulnar collateral near the elbow joint. Common Interosseous Artery → Divides into: Anterior Interosseous Artery → Descends and anastomoses with the dorsal interosseous artery. Posterior Interosseous Artery → Passes back through the oblique cord and upper border of the interosseous membrane. Anastomoses with the dorsal carpal network.

Answer 174

Palmar Carpal Branch Contributes to the superficial palmar arch. Dorsal Carpal Artery Terminal branch that contributes to the deep palmar arch.

Answer 175

It gives off three common palmar digital arteries, which then branch into proper palmar digital arteries to supply the medial 3½ digits.

Answer 176

It is found at the base of the metacarpals.

Answer 177

It gives off 3 or 4 palmar metacarpal arteries that supply the lateral 1½ digits.

Answer 178

It is the portion of the main artery that leaves the heart and is located between the ascending and descending aorta.

Answer 179

It leaves the left ventricle of the heart at the level of the third costal cartilage, behind the left half of the sternum.

Answer 180

It passes upward, forward, and to the right, then at the second right costal cartilage it enters the mediastinum. The arch travels upward, backward, and to the left, crossing in front of the trachea. It can ascend as high as the midlevel of the manubrium of the sternum

Answer 181

Approximately 30 mm.

Answer 182

Brachiocephalic Trunk First and largest branch. Travels to the right and anterior of the other branches. Divides into the Right Common Carotid and Right Subclavian Artery. Left Common Carotid Artery Ascends along the left side of the trachea through the superior mediastinum. Splits into the internal and external carotid arteries. Left Subclavian Artery Ascends through the superior mediastinum along with the left common carotid artery. Moves laterally to supply the left upper limb

Answer 183

It is the continuation of the descending aorta located within the thorax, contained in the posterior mediastinal cavity.

Answer 184

It begins at the lower border of T4, where the aortic arch ends, and continues until the aortic hiatus of the diaphragm, where it becomes the abdominal aorta.

Answer 185

Approximately 1.1 cm (11 mm) in radius.

Answer 186

Posteriorly: Vertebral column and hemiazygos vein To the right: Azygos vein and thoracic duct To the left: Left pleura and lung Anteriorly: Root of the left lung, pericardium, esophagus, and diaphragm

Answer 187

Mnemonic: Ben Made Every Person Suffer Bronchial Arteries → Supply the bronchi. Mediastinal Arteries → Supply the lymph glands and areolar tissue in the posterior mediastinum. Esophageal Arteries → 4–5 branches arise from the front of the aorta to supply the esophagus. Pericardial Arteries → Supply the pericardium. Superior Phrenic Arteries → Supply the diaphragm.

Answer 188

Posterior Intercostal Arteries → These branch off throughout the length of the thoracic aorta and supply the intercostal spaces.

Answer 189

It is the largest vessel in the abdominal cavity, a continuation of the descending thoracic aorta.

Answer 190

It begins at the aortic hiatus of the diaphragm (T12) and ends at the level of L4, where it bifurcates into the left and right common iliac arteries.

Answer 191

It travels down the posterior wall of the abdomen, directly anterior to the vertebral column, following the convex curvature of the lumbar vertebrae.

Answer 192

The abdominal aorta runs parallel to the IVC, which is positioned to its right.

Answer 193

Paravisceral Segment → Where the visceral branches arise. Infrarenal Segment → No branches arise from this segment.

Answer 194

They are the paired terminal branches of the abdominal aorta, arising from the aortic bifurcation at the level of L4.

Answer 195

Inferior Phrenic Arteries Arise just below the aortic hiatus. Supply the diaphragm and adrenal glands (superior suprarenal arteries). Middle Suprarenal Arteries Arise at the level of L1. Supply the adrenal glands. Renal Arteries Arise at the level of L1-L2. Supply the kidneys. Right renal artery is longer and passes behind the IVC. Gonadal Arteries Arise at the level of L2. In males → Testicular arteries → Supply the testes. In females → Ovarian arteries → Supply the ovaries. Lumbar Arteries Typically four pairs, arise from the posterior surface of the aorta. Supply the lumbar vertebrae, spinal cord, and back muscles.

Answer 196

Celiac Trunk (T12 Level) Left Gastric Artery → Supplies the stomach and esophagus. Splenic Artery → Supplies the spleen, pancreas, and stomach. Common Hepatic Artery → Divides into the proper hepatic artery and gastroduodenal artery, supplying the liver, gallbladder, and parts of the stomach and duodenum. Superior Mesenteric Artery (SMA) (L1 Level) Arises just below the celiac trunk. Supplies the midgut → Small intestine, cecum, ascending colon, and proximal two-thirds of the transverse colon. Major branches include: Inferior Pancreaticoduodenal Artery Jejunal and Ileal Arteries Ileocolic Artery Right Colic Artery Middle Colic Artery Inferior Mesenteric Artery (IMA) (L3 Level) Arises inferior to the SMA. Supplies the hindgut → Distal third of the transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, and rectum. Major branches include: Left Colic Artery Sigmoid Arteries Superior Rectal Artery

Answer 197

Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm (AAA) → A dangerous dilation of the abdominal aorta, often occurring below the renal arteries. Atherosclerosis → Can lead to stenosis or occlusion of the branches of the abdominal aorta. Renal Artery Stenosis → Narrowing of the renal arteries, leading to hypertension.

Answer 198

They run along the medial border of the psoas muscles for about 4 cm, along with the common iliac veins, which are located posteriorly to the right.

Answer 199

They end in front of the sacroiliac joint, where they bifurcate into the internal iliac artery and external iliac artery.

Answer 200

They supply all blood to the lower limbs and pelvic organs.

Answer 201

It is a paired artery that supplies the pelvis, buttocks, reproductive organs, and the medial part of the thigh.

Answer 202

It is 3–4 cm long. After bifurcation from the common iliac artery, it descends to the upper margin of the greater sciatic foramen. It divides into anterior and posterior trunks. It is located posterior to the ureter, anterior to the internal iliac vein, and runs between the external iliac vein and psoas major muscle.

Answer 203

It is divided into Posterior Division and Anterior Division.

Answer 204

Iliolumbar Artery Divides into lumbar and iliac branches. Supplies psoas major, quadratus lumborum, and iliacus. Lateral Sacral Arteries Divided into superior and inferior branches. Pass through the anterior sacral foramina. Supply the dorsum of the sacrum and spinal meninges. Anastomose with gluteal arteries. Superior Gluteal Artery Passes through the greater sciatic foramen. Supplies the gluteal muscles.

Answer 205

It is the continuation of the common iliac artery that travels along the anterior and inferior of the psoas major muscle after the bifurcation of the common iliac artery.

Answer 206

Obturator Artery Divides into anterior and posterior branches. Travels through the obturator canal. Supplies the obturator externus, medial thigh, and femur. Inferior Gluteal Artery Supplies the gluteus maximus, piriformis, and quadratus femoris muscles. Umbilical Artery Gives rise to the artery to the vas deferens and the superior vesical artery. In males → Supplies the vas deferens. In females → Forms part of the medial umbilical ligament after birth. Vaginal Artery / Inferior Vesical Artery Vaginal artery → Supplies the vagina. Inferior vesical artery → Supplies the base of the bladder. Middle Rectal Artery Supplies the rectum. Internal Pudendal Artery Exits through the greater sciatic foramen and re-enters through the lesser sciatic foramen. Major branches: Inferior Rectal Artery → Supplies the anal canal. Perineal Artery → Supplies the perineum. Posterior Labial/Scrotal Arteries → Supply the labia/scrotum. Artery to Bulb of Vestibule/Penis → Supplies the bulb of the vestibule or penis. Dorsal Artery of Clitoris/Penis → Supplies the dorsal part of the clitoris or penis. Deep Artery of Clitoris/Penis → Supplies the corpus cavernosum of the clitoris or penis.

Answer 207

It runs posterior and inferior to the inguinal ligament. After it passes the inguinal ligament, it becomes the femoral artery.

Answer 208

Inferior Epigastric Artery Anastomoses with the superior epigastric artery and supplies the anterior abdominal wall. Deep Circumflex Iliac Artery Runs along the inguinal ligament to supply the iliac region. Femoral Artery (Terminal Branch) It is the continuation of the external iliac artery after passing beneath the inguinal ligament.

Answer 209

It is the main artery of the thigh and the continuation of the external iliac artery after it passes under the inguinal ligament.

Answer 210

It enters the thigh from behind the inguinal ligament. It is sheathed in the femoral sheath with the femoral vein. Runs behind the sartorius muscle and medially to the femoral nerve. It supplies the anterior compartment of the thigh.

Answer 211

Superficial Circumflex Iliac Artery Runs towards the anterior superior iliac spine. Supplies the superficial region of the lower abdominal wall. Superficial Epigastric Artery Travels towards the umbilicus (belly button region). Supplies the superficial fascia and skin of the lower abdomen. Superficial External Pudendal Artery Supplies the skin of the scrotum (males) or labium majus (females). Deep External Pudendal Artery Also supplies the skin of the scrotum (males) or labium majus (females). Travels deeper than the superficial external pudendal. Profunda Femoris (Deep Artery of the Thigh) Arises 4 cm below the inguinal ligament. Enters the medial fascial compartment of the thigh. Supplies the muscle compartments of the thigh. Gives off the following important branches: Lateral Circumflex Femoral Artery → Supplies the lateral thigh muscles. Medial Circumflex Femoral Artery → Supplies the hip joint and adductors of the thigh. Perforating Arteries → Pierce the adductor magnus to supply the posterior compartment of the thigh. Descending Genicular Artery Supplies the knee joint. Participates in the genicular anastomosis around the knee.

Answer 212

It is the continuation of the femoral artery after it passes through the adductor hiatus (a gap in the adductor magnus muscle).

Answer 213

It passes through the popliteal fossa, which is the diamond-shaped space behind the knee joint. It runs close to the joint capsule of the knee. It ends at the lower border of the popliteus muscle, where it branches into the anterior and posterior tibial arteries.

Answer 214

Five Genicular Arteries → Form the genicular anastomosis that supplies the knee joint: Superior Lateral Genicular Artery Superior Medial Genicular Artery Middle Genicular Artery Inferior Lateral Genicular Artery Inferior Medial Genicular Artery Sural Arteries Two large branches that supply the gastrocnemius, soleus, and plantaris muscles.

Answer 215

Anterior Tibial Artery Branches off at the lower border of the popliteus muscle. Travels anteriorly through the interosseous membrane. Runs along the anterior compartment of the leg. Continues as the Dorsalis Pedis Artery on the dorsum of the foot. Posterior Tibial Artery Travels posteriorly through the deep compartment of the leg. Runs alongside the tibial nerve. Passes through the tarsal tunnel into the sole of the foot. Divides into the Medial Plantar Artery and Lateral Plantar Artery.

Answer 216

It is the continuation of the anterior tibial artery as it enters the foot.

Answer 217

It passes over the dorsal aspect of the tarsal bones. Moves inferiorly and divides into: First Dorsal Metatarsal Artery → Supplies the first metatarsal region. Deep Plantar Artery → Anastomoses with the lateral plantar artery to form the deep plantar arch.

Answer 218

It supplies the plantar side of the foot. Passes through the tarsal tunnel (behind the medial malleolus). Divides into: Medial Plantar Artery → Supplies the medial plantar region. Lateral Plantar Artery → Supplies the lateral plantar region. Contributes to the deep plantar arch.

Answer 219

It is formed by the deep plantar artery (from Dorsalis Pedis) and the lateral plantar artery (from Posterior Tibial).

Answer 220

It provides collateral circulation for the metatarsals and toes.

Answer 221

It is the main vein that returns venous blood from the upper half of the body to the right atrium of the heart.

Answer 222

Approximately 24 mm.

Answer 223

The head, neck, and arms.

Answer 224

In the anterior right part of the superior mediastinum.

Answer 225

By the union of the left and right brachiocephalic veins.

Answer 226

The jugular vein (from the head) and the subclavian vein (from the arm).

Answer 227

Internal Thoracic Vein Inferior Thyroid Vein Left Superior Intercostal Vein

Answer 228

The dural venous sinuses.

Answer 229

They are spaces between the periosteal and meningeal layers of dura mater that collect venous blood from the brain and skull.

Answer 230

They ultimately drain into the internal jugular vein.

Answer 231

By veins that are synonymous with the arteries in those regions. These veins then drain into the jugular veins.

Answer 232

External Jugular Vein Internal Jugular Vein Anterior Jugular Vein

Answer 233

By the union of the posterior auricular vein (drains the scalp) and the retromandibular vein (drains the face) at the angle of the mandible.

Answer 234

It passes underneath the clavicle and drains into the subclavian vein.

Answer 235

It begins in the cranial cavity as a continuation of the sigmoid sinus, known as the superior bulb.

Answer 236

It exits via the jugular foramen.

Answer 237

It descends through the carotid sheath, forming the inferior bulb before joining the subclavian vein.

Answer 238

They drain the anterior part of the neck.

Answer 239

Facial Vein Lingual Vein Occipital Vein Superior Thyroid Vein Middle Thyroid Vein

Answer 240

They communicate via the venous arch.

Answer 241

They empty into the subclavian vein.

Answer 242

By the internal thoracic vein, which drains into the brachiocephalic vein.

Answer 243

By the azygos system, which drains into the Superior Vena Cava (SVC).

Answer 244

The 1st intercostal space → Drained by the highest intercostal vein into the brachiocephalic vein. Right side (2nd–12th) → Drained by the azygos vein into the SVC. Left side (lower thorax) → Drained by the hemiazygos vein. Left side (upper thorax) → Drained by the accessory hemiazygos vein.

Answer 245

A large vein running up the right side of the thoracic vertebral column.

Answer 246

It drains the posterior walls of the thorax and abdomen into the SVC.

Answer 247

By the union of the ascending lumbar veins and the right subcostal vein.

Answer 248

It is the left-sided counterpart to the azygos vein, draining the lower thorax.

Answer 249

It drains into the azygos vein at the level of T9.

Answer 250

It is a vein on the left side that drains the 5th to 8th intercostal spaces.

Answer 251

It drains into the azygos vein or directly into the superior intercostal vein.

Answer 252

It collects blood from the superior epigastric vein and drains into the brachiocephalic vein.

Answer 253

By venous plexuses that run along the column both inside and outside the canal. These are known as the internal vertebral plexus and the external vertebral plexus.

Answer 254

They are found in the pia mater of the spinal cord.

Answer 255

Two Median Longitudinal Veins → Anterior and Posterior. Two Pairs of Lateral Veins → These enter the vertebral column with the nerve roots.

Answer 256

They drain into the internal vertebral plexus in the epidural space, which then empties into the azygos system in the thorax.

Answer 257

They are veins that perforate into the body of the vertebrae itself, draining into the internal vertebral plexus.

Answer 258

It is the largest vein in the body, carrying venous blood from the lower part of the body into the right atrium of the heart.

Answer 259

It is formed by the joining of the left and right common iliac veins at the 5th lumbar vertebra (L5).

Answer 260

It is located retroperitoneally in the abdominal cavity, running alongside the right side of the vertebral column. It passes through the diaphragm at the caval opening (T8 level).

Answer 261

L5 Level: Common Iliac Veins → Drain the pelvis and lower limbs. L1 to L5 Levels: Lumbar Veins → Drain the posterior abdominal wall. L2 Level: Right Gonadal Vein → Drains the right testicle (testicular vein) or right ovary (ovarian vein). L1 Level: Right Suprarenal Vein → Drains the right adrenal gland. Renal Veins → Drain the kidneys. The left renal vein receives the left gonadal vein and left suprarenal vein before joining the IVC. T8 Level: Hepatic Veins → Drain the liver. Inferior Phrenic Veins → Drain the diaphragm.

Answer 262

External Iliac Vein Continuation of the femoral vein. Begins at the crossing of the inguinal ligament. Receives: Inferior Epigastric Vein Deep Circumflex Vein Internal Iliac Vein Responsible for the majority of pelvic drainage. Formed near the greater sciatic foramen. Tributaries correspond with the branches of the internal iliac artery, draining: Superior and Inferior Gluteal Veins Internal Pudendal Vein Obturator Vein Lateral Sacral Veins Middle Rectal Vein Vesical Veins Uterine and Vaginal Veins Common Iliac Vein Formed at the upper margin of the pubic symphysis by the union of the internal and external iliac veins. Additionally receives: Iliolumbar Vein Middle Sacral Vein

Answer 263

By the lumbar veins, which drain into the IVC.

Answer 264

Through a network of veins, including: Superior Epigastric Vein Inferior Epigastric Vein Superficial Epigastric Vein Deep Circumflex Iliac Veins

Answer 265

They all feed into the IVC directly or through the external iliac vein.

Answer 266

They are venous connections between the Superior Vena Cava (SVC) and the Inferior Vena Cava (IVC), allowing for collateral circulation if there is an obstruction in either system.

Answer 267

It is a superficial vein that runs along the lateral aspect of the trunk, connecting the superficial epigastric vein and the lateral thoracic vein.

Answer 268

Axillary Vein → Drains into the SVC (Superior Vena Cava). Femoral Vein → Drains into the IVC (Inferior Vena Cava).

Answer 269

It establishes a connection between the femoral vein (which drains into the IVC) and the axillary vein (which drains into the SVC), thus creating a cava-caval anastomosis.

Answer 270

It is linked to the portal system through the paraumbilical vein, enabling communication between the caval system and the portal venous system.

Answer 271

They allow venous return if there is a blockage or compression in either the SVC or IVC, providing an alternate route for blood flow.

Answer 272

It is a connection between the portal venous system and the systemic venous system (caval veins).

Answer 273

It connects with the paraumbilical veins, which are part of the portal system, allowing blood shunting if there is portal hypertension.

Answer 274

Cephalic Vein Runs down the lateral side of the arm and forearm. Drains into the axillary vein. Originates from the dorsal venous network of the hand. Basilic Vein Runs down the medial side of the arm and forearm. Drains into the brachial vein or becomes part of the axillary vein. Originates from the dorsal venous network of the hand. Median Cubital Vein Courses across the crease of the elbow. Connects the cephalic vein and the basilic vein. Common site for venipuncture.

Answer 275

The dorsal venous arch and palmar venous arch. Both are drained by the cephalic and basilic veins

Answer 276

They are connected by perforating veins along the forearm.

Answer 277

Axillary Vein Formed by the basilic vein and brachial veins. Continues as the subclavian vein. Brachial Vein Paired veins that run with the brachial artery. Unite with the basilic vein to form the axillary vein. Radial and Ulnar Veins Run alongside their respective arteries in the forearm. Merge to form the brachial vein.

Answer 278

External Iliac Vein Continuation of the femoral vein. Deep Vein of the Thigh (Profunda Femoris Vein) Drains the deep structures of the thigh. Femoral Vein Main deep vein of the thigh, draining into the external iliac vein. Popliteal Vein Formed by the anterior and posterior tibial veins. Located in the popliteal fossa. Fibular (Peroneal) Vein Drains the lateral compartment of the leg. Posterior Tibial Vein Drains the posterior compartment of the leg. Anterior Tibial Vein Drains the anterior compartment of the leg.

Answer 279

Great Saphenous Vein Formed by the dorsal venous arch of the foot and the dorsal vein of the big toe. Runs up the medial side of the leg. Passes anteriorly to the medial malleolus and posterior to the medial condyle of the knee. Drains into the femoral vein just before the inguinal ligament. Small Saphenous Vein Formed by the dorsal venous arch of the foot and the dorsal vein of the little toe. Runs up the posterior aspect of the leg. Drains into the popliteal vein in the popliteal fossa.

Answer 280

They are networks of veins in the foot that drain into the anterior and posterior tibial veins.

Answer 281

It is the main vein of the portal system, responsible for transporting venous blood from the digestive tract to the liver for filtering and processing.

Answer 282

It carries blood from the digestive organs, spleen, pancreas, and gallbladder to the liver.

Answer 283

The liver filters toxins, metabolizes nutrients, and stores vitamins before the blood enters the systemic circulation.

Answer 284

Splenic Vein → Drains the spleen and receives pancreatic veins. Gastric Vein → Drains the fundus of the stomach. Left Gastro-omental Vein → Drains the curvature of the stomach. Pancreatic Veins → Drain the pancreas. Inferior Mesenteric Vein → Drains the large intestine. Superior Mesenteric Vein → Drains the small intestine and part of the large intestine. Right Gastro-omental Vein → Drains the curvature of the stomach. Anterior and Posterior Inferior Pancreaticoduodenal Veins → Drain the pancreas and duodenum. Jejunal Vein → Drains the jejunum. Ileal Vein → Drains the ileum. Ileocolic Vein → Drains the ileum, colon, and cecum. Right Colic Vein → Drains the ascending colon. Middle Colic Vein → Drains the transverse colon.

Answer 285

It is a connection between the systemic venous system (caval system) and the portal venous system.

Answer 286

They provide collateral circulation if there is an obstruction or portal hypertension in the liver.

Answer 287

Esophageal Anastomosis Connection between the esophageal branch of the left gastric vein (portal) and the esophageal branch of the azygos vein (systemic). Rectal Anastomosis Connection between the superior rectal vein (portal) and the middle and inferior rectal veins (systemic). Paraumbilical Anastomosis Connection between the paraumbilical vein (portal) and the superficial epigastric vein (systemic). Often seen as caput medusae during portal hypertension. Retroperitoneal Anastomosis Connection between the splenic vein (portal) and the renal vein (systemic). Intrahepatic Anastomosis Connection between the left branch of the portal vein (portal) and the inferior vena cava (systemic).

Answer 288

Liver cirrhosis, which can cause portal hypertension. This leads to enlargement and rupture of the veins at these anastomotic sites, causing varices and potential hemorrhage.

Answer 289

They become engorged and visible when the portal pressure increases. Examples include: Esophageal varices → Risk of bleeding. Caput medusae → Distended veins around the umbilicus. Hemorrhoids → Dilated veins in the rectum.

Answer 290

It receives deoxygenated blood from the iliac arteries of the fetus and returns oxygenated blood from the placenta to the fetus' liver via the inferior vena cava.

Answer 291

Through the umbilical vein, carrying oxygen and nutrients from the placenta.

Answer 292

One-third of the blood enters the inferior vena cava directly via the ductus venosus. The remaining two-thirds are mixed with deoxygenated blood in the liver before entering the IVC.

Answer 293

A vessel that shunts oxygenated blood from the umbilical vein directly into the inferior vena cava, bypassing the liver.

Answer 294

Blood from the inferior vena cava enters the right atrium. Blood is shunted directly to the left atrium through the foramen ovale. Blood then enters the left ventricle and is pumped into the aorta for systemic circulation.

Answer 295

It is a vessel that connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta, diverting blood away from the non-functioning fetal lungs and into systemic circulation.

Answer 296

It is an opening between the right and left atria in the fetal heart, allowing blood to bypass the lungs.

Answer 297

It allows most of the blood from the right ventricle to bypass the lungs and enter the aorta, since the lungs are not used for oxygen exchange in the fetus.

Answer 298

The initiation of breathing expands the lungs and reduces capillary resistance, allowing blood flow through the pulmonary capillaries.

Answer 299

It enters the umbilical arteries, which return deoxygenated blood back to the placenta for re-oxygenation.

Answer 300

The pressure in the right atrium drops due to lung expansion, causing the foramen ovale to close, eventually forming the fossa ovalis.

Answer 301

Increased aortic pressure reverses blood flow, leading to its closure. It gradually becomes the ligamentum arteriosum after a few months.

Answer 302

When the umbilical cord is cut, the umbilical vein closes and becomes the ligamentum teres hepatis in the liver.

Answer 303

Fetal Structure Function Adult Remnant Ductus Venosus Shunts blood from the umbilical vein to IVC Ligamentum Venosum Foramen Ovale Shunts blood from right to left atrium Fossa Ovalis Ductus Arteriosus Shunts blood from pulmonary artery to aorta Ligamentum Arteriosum Umbilical Vein Carries oxygenated blood from placenta Ligamentum Teres Hepatis Umbilical Arteries Carry deoxygenated blood to placenta Medial Umbilical Ligaments

Answer 304

It is a network of tissues and organs that helps the body remove toxins and unwanted materials. It plays a major role in immune defense and fluid balance.

Answer 305

To transport lymph, a fluid rich in white blood cells (lymphocytes), throughout the body.

Answer 306

Lymph Vessels → Transport lymph fluid. Lymph Nodes → Filter lymph and monitor for pathogens. Lymphoid Organs → Include the tonsils, thymus, and spleen.

Answer 307

They filter lymph, trap pathogens, and facilitate immune responses.

Answer 308

Tonsils → Trap pathogens entering through the mouth and nose. Thymus → Site of T-cell maturation. Spleen → Filters blood, removes old red blood cells, and responds to infections.

Answer 309

They collect interstitial fluid from tissues and transport it as lymph. Approximately 3 liters of interstitial fluid is collected each day.

Answer 310

Made of loosely overlapping endothelial cells. Allow fluid to move in but not out. Work similarly to veins, with a thin layer of smooth muscle and valves to prevent backflow.

Answer 311

Lymph is propelled through: Skeletal muscle contraction Smooth muscle action in the vessel walls Respiratory movements

Answer 312

Right Lymphatic Duct Collects lymph from the right arm, right side of the head, and right thorax. Drains into the right subclavian vein. Thoracic Duct Collects lymph from the left side of the head, left arm, left thorax, and entire lower body. Drains into the left subclavian vein.

Answer 313

It is a large lymphatic sac located at the L1-L2 vertebral level that collects lymph from the intestinal and lumbar trunks before it enters the thoracic duct.

Answer 314

1️⃣ Interstitial Fluid → Collected by Lymph Capillaries 2️⃣ Lymph Capillaries → Drain into Lymph Vessels 3️⃣ Lymph Vessels → Transport fluid to Lymph Nodes for filtration 4️⃣ Lymph Nodes → Clean lymph and send it forward 5️⃣ Lymphatic Ducts → Right Lymphatic Duct or Thoracic Duct 6️⃣ Subclavian Veins → Lymph re-enters the bloodstream

Answer 315

They are small, ovoid structures found throughout the body, functioning as filters for lymphatic fluid and immune response centers.

Answer 316

Five main types: Adenoid Tonsil (Pharyngeal Tonsil) Tubal Tonsils (2 - one on each side) Palatine Tonsils (2 - one on each side of the throat) Lingual Tonsil

Answer 317

Approximately 600 lymph nodes.

Answer 318

T lymphocytes (T cells), B lymphocytes (B cells), macrophages, and plasma cells.

Answer 319

Underarms (axillary) Groin (inguinal) Neck (cervical) Chest (thoracic) Abdomen

Answer 320

Outer Cortex Inner Medulla

Answer 321

Up to 1 cm long. Surrounded by a fibrous capsule. Contains trabeculae (indentations) that extend inward.

Answer 322

T cells are found in the inner layer of the cortex, responsible for cell-mediated immune response.

Answer 323

It contains B cells arranged in follicles.

Answer 324

The germinal centers are sites of B cell proliferation and maturation.

Answer 325

Macrophages → Involved in phagocytosis of pathogens. Plasma Cells → Produce antibodies. B Cells → Present in smaller numbers than in the cortex.

Answer 326

Medullary sinuses, which are spaces for lymph to flow and filter through.

Answer 327

It is the depression where the efferent lymphatic vessel exits the lymph node.

Answer 328

It carries filtered lymph away from the lymph node toward venous circulation or another lymph node.

Answer 329

They are masses of lymphoid tissue located around the aerodigestive tract, acting as one of the first lines of defense in the immune response.

Answer 330

They are part of Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALTs).

Answer 331

At the roof of the pharynx.

Answer 332

Respiratory epithelium with small folds.

Answer 333

In the roof of the pharynx, near the opening of the Eustachian tube.

Answer 334

Respiratory epithelium.

Answer 335

On either side of the oropharynx, visible at the back of the throat.

Answer 336

Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

Answer 337

A network of pits (crypts) that store B cells and trap pathogens.

Answer 338

At the base of the tongue, behind the terminal sulcus.

Answer 339

Non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

Answer 340

A network of pits (crypts) for capturing antigens and activating B cells.

Answer 341

M cells are specialized epithelial cells that capture antigens and present them to B cells and T cells in the tonsils.

Answer 342

In the germinal centers of the tonsils.

Answer 343

B memory cells → Long-term immunity. Secretory antibodies (mainly IgA) → Local immune defense.

Answer 344

It is both an endocrine gland and a primary lymphoid organ. Plays a crucial role in the development and maturation of T-lymphocytes (T cells).

Answer 345

It is large and active in children, reaching its maximum size at puberty. After puberty, it atrophies and becomes barely distinguishable in old age.

Answer 346

It measures approximately 5 cm x 4 cm x 6 cm. Located in the anterior mediastinum, extending from the fourth costal cartilage to the lower border of the thyroid gland. It overlies the sternum and is positioned above the pericardium.

Answer 347

They are made up of nodules (follicles), each containing a cortex and a medulla.

Answer 348

Two Lateral Lobes → Positioned near the midline. Fibrous Capsule → Each lobe is surrounded by a fibrous capsule. Lobules → Each lobe is divided into lobules by areolar tissue.

Answer 349

The cortex is densely packed with immature T cells (thymocytes). These T cells are educated to recognize antigens presented by epithelial cells. Those that respond correctly survive; those that do not are eliminated.

Answer 350

T cells migrate from the cortex to the medulla for further testing. In the medulla, they are exposed to self-antigens to test for autoimmunity. Only T cells that do not react to self-antigens are allowed to mature.

Answer 351

They are eosinophilic structures found in the medulla of the thymus. Composed of type VI epithelial reticular cells. Their exact function is unknown, but they are thought to be involved in T cell maturation or regulation.

Answer 352

Internal Thoracic Artery Superior Thyroid Artery Inferior Thyroid Artery

Answer 353

It trains and develops T-lymphocytes (T cells) to ensure they can: Recognize foreign antigens. Ignore the body's own cells (prevent autoimmunity).

Answer 354

It prevents the immune system from attacking the body's own tissues, avoiding autoimmune diseases.

Answer 355

It is a lymphatic organ that functions to filter blood, store blood, and protect the body from infections.

Answer 356

It is situated in the left hypochondriac region of the abdominal cavity, between the stomach and the diaphragm.

Answer 357

Approximately 4 inches long.

Answer 358

It is well-vascularized by the splenic artery, which is a branch of the celiac trunk.

Answer 359

Diaphragmatic Surface → Faces the diaphragm. Visceral Surface → Faces the abdominal organs (stomach, left kidney, pancreas).

Answer 360

It is the entry and exit site for the splenic artery, splenic vein, and lymphatic vessels.

Answer 361

Superior Border → Notched and sharp. Inferior Border → Rounded and smooth. Intermediate Border → Separates the diaphragmatic and visceral surfaces. Anterior Pole → Faces the stomach. Posterior Pole → Faces the diaphragm.

Answer 362

Gastrosplenic Ligament → Connects the spleen to the stomach. Splenorenal Ligament → Connects the spleen to the left kidney. Phrenicocolic Ligament → Supports the spleen superiorly, attaching to the diaphragm and colon.

Answer 363

It is a soft, spongy tissue found in the medullary cavities of bones, responsible for blood cell production (hematopoiesis).

Answer 364

White Pulp Contains lymph nodules arranged around a central arteriole called the Malpighian capsule. Composed of B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes. Functions in immune response activation (humoral and cell-mediated immunity). Red Pulp Composed of sinuses filled with blood cells, lymphocytes, and macrophages. Functions in phagocytosis of old red blood cells and pathogens.

Answer 365

Two types: Red Bone Marrow → Hematopoietic, rich in blood cells. Yellow Bone Marrow → Adipocyte-rich, mostly fat storage, with minimal hematopoiesis.

Answer 366

The abundance of blood and hemopoietic cells.

Answer 367

Filtration of Blood → Removes old and damaged red blood cells. Immune Response → Activates B and T cells in response to pathogens. Phagocytosis → Carried out by macrophages in the red pulp. Storage of Red Blood Cells (RBCs) → Acts as a reservoir for RBCs. Hematopoiesis during Fetal Development → Produces blood cells during gestation.

Answer 368

Flat bones → Pelvis, sternum, cranium, ribs, vertebrae, and scapulae. Spongy material at the epiphyseal ends of long bones (like the femur and humerus).

Answer 369

Myelopoietic cells → Develop into granulocytes and monocytes. Erythropoietic cells → Develop into red blood cells (erythrocytes). Other cells → Include plasma cells, reticular cells, lymphocytes, monocytes, and megakaryocytes.

Answer 370

They are multipotent stem cells that give rise to: Leukocytes (white blood cells) Erythrocytes (red blood cells) Platelets

Answer 371

The presence of adipocytes (fat cells).

Answer 372

Red bone marrow is gradually replaced by yellow bone marrow as a person ages.

Answer 373

In the diaphysis (shaft) of long bones.

Answer 374

It is the supportive tissue within the bone marrow that is not directly involved in hematopoiesis.

Answer 375

It is a meshwork of specialized fibroblastic cells, collagen fibers, and a supportive matrix.

Answer 376

Similar to bone matrix: Collagen Type I Proteoglycans Fibronectin Laminin

Answer 377

Hematopoiesis → Production of all blood cells (red and white blood cells, and platelets).

Answer 378

Granulocytes (Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils) Monocytes Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes) Platelets (from Megakaryocytes)

Answer 379

They are produced in their immature state in the bone marrow and then travel to lymphoid tissues for maturation.

Answer 380

Superficial Lymph Nodes → Associated with the external jugular vein. Deep Lymph Nodes → Form a chain along the internal jugular vein.

Answer 381

Occipital Nodes → Drain the posterior scalp and upper neck. Mastoid Nodes → Also known as retroauricular nodes, drain the posterior auricle and scalp. Both occipital and mastoid nodes drain into superficial nodes along the external jugular vein. Parotid Nodes → Drain the lateral face, eyelids, and parotid gland. Submandibular Nodes → Drain the medial face, upper lip, floor of the mouth, and anterior tongue. Submental Nodes → Drain the lower lip, chin, and tip of the tongue. The parotid, submandibular, and submental nodes drain into the deep jugular nodes along the internal jugular vein.

Answer 382

They are positioned along the external jugular vein.

Answer 383

They form a chain along the internal jugular vein, deep to the sternocleidomastoid muscle.

Answer 384

Jugulodigastric Node Located near the posterior belly of the digastric muscle. Drains the tonsils, pharynx, and posterior tongue. Often the first node to swell in tonsillitis. Jugulo-omohyoid Node Located near the intermediate tendon of the omohyoid muscle. Drains the tongue and oral cavity.

Answer 385

1️⃣ Superficial Nodes → Drain into superficial lymphatic vessels along the external jugular vein. 2️⃣ Deep Nodes → Drain into the deep cervical chain along the internal jugular vein. 3️⃣ Deep Cervical Chain → Converges into the jugular lymphatic trunks. 4️⃣ Jugular Lymphatic Trunks → Empty into the thoracic duct (left) and right lymphatic duct (right). 5️⃣ Subclavian Veins → Lymph returns to systemic circulation.

Answer 386

They drain into the lymph nodes in the axilla (axillary lymph nodes).

Answer 387

Upper back Shoulder Lower neck Chest Upper abdominal wall

Answer 388

Around 20–30 lymph nodes.

Answer 389

🔹 They are divided based on their location and drainage: 1️⃣ Humeral (Lateral) Nodes Located posteromedial to the axillary vein. Receive most of the drainage from the upper limb. 2️⃣ Pectoral (Anterior) Nodes Located along the inferior margin of pectoralis minor. Drain the abdominal wall, chest, and mammary gland. 3️⃣ Subscapular (Posterior) Nodes Found on the posterior axillary wall with subscapular vessels. Drain the back, shoulder, and neck. 4️⃣ Central Nodes Embedded in axillary fat. Receive lymph from the humeral, subscapular, and pectoral nodes. 5️⃣ Apical Nodes The most superior group in the axilla. Drain all other axillary nodes as well as lymph from the cephalic vein and superior region of the mammary gland.

Answer 390

From the lymphatic plexus on the skin of the hand.

Answer 391

They ascend along with the basilic vein (medial side) and the cephalic vein (lateral side).

Answer 392

They drain into the apical nodes in the axilla.

Answer 393

They follow the deep veins of the upper limb: Radial Vein Ulnar Vein Brachial Vein

Answer 394

They drain into the humeral (lateral) axillary lymph nodes.

Answer 395

They are divided into Parietal Lymph Nodes and Visceral Lymph Nodes.

Answer 396

Parasternal Lymph Nodes Located at the ends of the intercostal spaces, near the internal thoracic artery. Drain into the bronchomediastinal trunk. Intercostal Lymph Nodes Found in the intercostal spaces. Receive deep lymphatics from the postero-lateral chest wall. Drain into the right lymphatic duct (right side) or the thoracic duct (left side). Superior Diaphragmatic Lymph Nodes Receive lymph from the diaphragm, surface of the liver, and connect to lumbar lymph nodes. Divided into anterior, middle, and posterior groups. These typically drain into the thoracic duct.

Answer 397

Tracheobronchial Lymph Nodes Collect lymph from the lungs, bronchi, heart, and trachea. Drain into the bronchomediastinal trunk. Bronchopulmonary (Hilar) Nodes Located at the hilum of the lungs. Drain lymph from the lung parenchyma and bronchi. Paratracheal Nodes Located along the trachea. Collect lymph from the trachea and bronchi. Intrapulmonary Nodes Found within the lung tissue. Drain the alveolar spaces and small bronchioles. Superior and Inferior Tracheobronchial Nodes Positioned at the bifurcation of the trachea. Drain the main bronchi and superior portions of the lung.

Answer 398

Thoracic Duct The largest lymph vessel in the body. Begins at T12 (cisterna chyli) and extends to the root of the neck. Drains into the left subclavian vein and the left internal jugular vein at the start of the brachiocephalic vein. Collects lymph from both lower limbs, abdomen, left thorax, left arm, left head, and left neck. Right Lymphatic Duct 1.25 cm in length. Runs along the medial border of scalenus anterior at the root of the neck. Drains into the right subclavian vein and right internal jugular vein at the brachiocephalic vein. Collects lymph from the right thorax, right arm, right head, and right neck. Bronchomediastinal Lymph Trunk Formed by the combination of: Tracheobronchial vessels Internal mammary vessels Anterior mediastinal lymph vessels Functions as the collector of lymph from the chest and thoracic wall. Drains into either the right lymphatic duct (right side) or the thoracic duct (left side).

Answer 399

1️⃣ Visceral and Parietal Nodes → Collect lymph from the lungs, bronchi, heart, diaphragm, and thoracic wall. 2️⃣ Bronchomediastinal Trunk → Collects lymph from thoracic nodes. 3️⃣ Thoracic Duct (left) or Right Lymphatic Duct (right) → Lymph is directed to the venous system. 4️⃣ Subclavian Veins → Lymph enters the circulatory system.

Answer 400

They are a network of lymph vessels and nodes that drain lymph from the pelvic organs, lower abdominal wall, gluteal region, and lower limbs.

Answer 401

They are classified into: Parietal Lymph Nodes → Drain the pelvic walls. Visceral Lymph Nodes → Drain the pelvic organs.

Answer 402

External Iliac Lymph Nodes Located along the external iliac vessels. Drain lymph from the lower limbs, lower abdominal wall, and pelvic viscera. Internal Iliac Lymph Nodes Located along the internal iliac vessels. Drain lymph from the pelvic organs, including the bladder, prostate (in males), cervix, and vagina (in females). Common Iliac Lymph Nodes Located along the common iliac vessels. Receive lymph from both external and internal iliac nodes. Transport lymph to the lumbar lymph nodes.

Answer 403

Perivesical Lymph Nodes Located around the urinary bladder. Drain the bladder wall. Pararectal Lymph Nodes Located near the rectum. Drain the rectal walls and anal canal. Sacral Lymph Nodes Found in the sacral region of the pelvis. Drain the lower rectum, cervix, and sacral soft tissues. Parametrial Lymph Nodes Located in the broad ligament of the uterus (in females). Drain the uterus and cervix.

Answer 404

1️⃣ Visceral and Parietal Lymph Nodes collect lymph from organs and walls. 2️⃣ Lymph is then transported to the internal and external iliac nodes. 3️⃣ These drain into the common iliac nodes. 4️⃣ From the common iliac nodes, lymph is carried to the lumbar (aortic) lymph nodes. 5️⃣ Finally, lymph enters the thoracic duct and returns to venous circulation.

cardiovascular and lymphoid system Flashcards

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