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Katie Cytology, Basic Genetics and Histology > Cardiovascular System 1 > Flashcards

Cardiovascular System 1 Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 3 parts of the Cardiovascular System

A

Heart , Blood vessels and blood

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2
Q

What should blood PH Levels be? Is this more alkaline or Acidic

A

7.35 - 7.45 more alkaline

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3
Q

Is below 7 more alkaline or acidic

A

Acidic

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4
Q

What is blood made up of

A

It is a fluid type of connective tissue, composed of 55% plasma (water nutrients, gases, proteins etc) and cells

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5
Q

How much of the body weight does blood account for

A

7%

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6
Q

On average how many litres of blood does a male and female have.

A

Men 5.6L and women 4.5l

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7
Q

What are the functions of the blood

A

The blood contributes to homeostasis by transporting Oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones nutrients and waste products.

Helps regulate PH and temperature

Immune function with antibodies, phagocytes clotting factors etc.

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8
Q

How is Oxygen transported

A

Through Haemoglobin

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9
Q

Where do we find Haemoglobin

A

We find it within red blood cells there are millions of Haemoglobin in each red blood cell.

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10
Q

What does plasma mean

A

Fluid portion of the blood

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11
Q

What is the plasma known as in bones

A

Extracellular matrix

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12
Q

Define Blood Plasma

A

is the yellow coloured liquid that remains when cells are removed from the blood

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13
Q

What does Blood plasma consist of (8)

A

91% Water
7% proteins
0.9% mineral salts
Nutrients
Waste materials
Enzymes
Gases
Hormones

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14
Q

What are Enzymes

A

Proteins that are catalysts for reactions in the body

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15
Q

What is serum in the blood

A

plasma with clotting factors removed

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16
Q

How do we separate blood plasma from blood cells

A

Using a centrifuge where blood is spun and contents separated based on the density

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17
Q

What is the purpose of centrifuging blood

A

When you separated the cells and plasma biomarkers are kept intact and are more stable by the time they arrive at the lab - giving more accurate results.

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18
Q

What organ are a majority of plasma proteins synthesised

A

Liver

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19
Q

What are Liver cells called

A

Hepatocytes

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20
Q

What is the plasma protein that we have the most of

A

Albumin makes up 55% and is the smallest and most numerous plasma protein

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21
Q

What are the functions of Albumin

A

Carrier of substances (lipids steroid hormones)
Maintains Osmotic pressure

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22
Q

What is Osmotic Pressure

A

Albumin is a magnet for water. Osmotic pressure helps to provide a chemical reaction to keep blood pumped with water.

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23
Q

What diseases are attributed to low albumin levels

A

Liver or Kidney disease

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24
Q

What happens if someone has low albumin levels

A

Less albumin in the blood means water won’t stay in the blood and will leak out and go into other tissues. This is called Odema

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25
Q

What happens in Odema

A

Fluid accumulates around the tissues

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26
Q

How much Albumin do we release per day

A

Between 10-15g

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27
Q

What are the 3 main Blood plasma protein

A

Albumin, Globulins and Fibrinogen

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28
Q

What are the functions of Globulins and what percentage of them do we have.

A

Immunity - Immunoglobulins (antibodies) that are secreted by B Cells
Transport Iron - lipids and vitamins 38%

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29
Q

What are the functions of Fibrinogen blood plasma proteins and what percentage is in the blood

A

Fibriongens are the clotting factor no 1 out of 13
Essential for blood clotting and account for 7% of blood plasma proteins.

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30
Q

How do nutrients pass into the blood

A

Products of digestion pass into the blood for distribution to all body cells.

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31
Q

Name 4 blood plasma nutrients needed

A

Simple sugars (carbohydrates mainly glucose)
Vitamins
Amino Acids
Fats/Oils

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32
Q

What are Amino Acids

A

Building blocks for proteins

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33
Q

How are fats and lipids carried

A

carried by proteins i.e HDL, LDL

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34
Q

What are the main positively charged mineral components called, give 4 examples

A

Cations - magnesium potassium, calcium and sodium

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35
Q

What is the name given to mineral components that are negatively charged

A

Anions - Chlorides, Bicarbonates phosphates

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36
Q

What is the equation for

Sodium
Calcium
Potassium
magnesium
Chlorine
Bicarbonate
Phosphate

A

NA+
CA+2
K+
Mg+2
CL-
HCO3-
PO4-2

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37
Q

What do we find in blood plasma

A

Waste products

Urea - from breakdown of proteins
Creatinine - waste product of muscle cells
Uric Acid - Breakdown of Purines
Carbon Dioxide - from cell metabolism

Hormones - Chemical messengers that travel in the blood

Enzymes - Catalysts (increases the rate) for biochemical reactions in the body

Gases - Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

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38
Q

Describe what the Urea Cycle is

A

When a cell has used some protein up for energy we get some ammonia. Our liver takes the ammonia and puts it through a series of reactions that then convert to Urea which is less harmful to our bodies

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39
Q

What is Erythro

A

Greek for Red

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40
Q

What is Leuko

A

Greek for White

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41
Q

Thrombo

A

Greek for clot

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42
Q

Describe Haematopoiesis in detail

A

Haematopoiesis describes the formation of Red Blood Cells

All blood cells originate from pluripotent stem cells in the red bone marrow.

During the first 2 months of gestation the embryonic yolk sac preforms Haematopoiesis. Then in months 2-9 of foetal life the liver and spleen take over.

In the first few years of life all bone marrow is red and produces red blood cells

In adults haematopoiesis occurs in the axial skeleton, skull, ribs, sternham, sacrum, pelvis and proximal long bones (mainly the femur)

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43
Q

Define and Describe Erythrocytes

A

Erythrocytes are bi-concave and non-nucleated allowing a larger surface area for transportation of Oxygen.

They have a life span of 90-120 days
They also have strong flexible membrane

They are around 6-8 um micrometres in diameter

The percentage blood volume of eurythrocytes is called Haematocrit

44
Q

What percentage is a male and female Haematocrit

A

Female 42%
Male 47%

45
Q

Why is the Haematocrit percentage lower in women

A

The red blood cells in women are more efficient

46
Q

What organ is known as the graveyard for red blood cells

A

The Spleen

47
Q

What is the abbreviation for Haemoglobin

A

Hb

48
Q

Define and describe the structure of an Erythrocyte

A

Erythrocytes are made up of Haemoglobin molecules that transport mainly oxygen and a small amount of carbon dioxide.

Each erythrocyte has 280 million Hb molecules
One Hb molecule has 4 polypeptide chains. Each chain binds to a pigment called Haem which contains Iron.
We can carry 4 Oxygen Atoms per Hb molecule

49
Q

What is good about the structure of an Erythrocyte

A

The structure optimises the function in transporting oxygen around the body

50
Q

What does poly peptide mean

A

Poly - Many
peptide - protein
= Large protein

51
Q

Define the structure of Haemoglobin

A

A Hb molecule is made up of 4 polypeptide chains. The structure of the chains is different in Foetal and Adult Hb

52
Q

What is Foetal hb composed of and why?

A

Foetal Hb (HbF) is composed of 4 polypeptide chains. 2 Alpha and 2 Gamma they are good at holding on to Oxygen

53
Q

What is Adult Hb composed of

A

Adult Hb (HbA) is composed of 2 Alpha chains and 2 Beta chains

54
Q

What is the appearance in Haemoglobin of 1. Alpha chains and 2. Beta Chains

A

Alpha chains create a Helix and Beta chains look like pleated sheets

55
Q

Why is blood red

A

Because of the interaction of Oxygen and Iron. Chemical reactions between the Oxygen and Iron reflect the light giving blood a red colour

56
Q

Why are red blood cells bi-concave and why?

A

Because they have removed all their organelles. To maximise surface area for Oxygen

57
Q

What is Folate and B12 important for

A

Cell division and maturing cells

58
Q

Define Erythropoiesis

A

Creation of all blood cells in the red bone marrow. Immature erythrocytes have nuclei and organelles as the cells mature they lose the organelles, this is what creates the indent in the cells)

59
Q

What 3 specific nutrients do we need to synthesise Erythrocytes

A

B12
Folate (B6)
Iron

60
Q

EPO is an abbreviation for what

A

The hormone Erythropoietin

61
Q

Why is the hormone EPO released; explain the process

A

Hypoxia stimulates the secretion of the hormone erythropoietin from the kidneys, which stimulates erythropoiesis in the bone marrow.

62
Q

What can cause Hypoxia

A

High Altitude, Haemolysis, blood loss and pregnancy

63
Q

what is the most abundant plasma protein in the blood

A

Albumin

64
Q

What is meant by blood plasma

A

Fluid portion of the blood

65
Q

List 3 functions of the blood

A

Transport of waste, transport of Oxygen, nutrients
regulating pH and temperature levels
Immunity

66
Q

What is meant by erythropoiesis

A

Production of red blood cells in the bone marrow

67
Q

Where does Haemolysis Occur

A

Mainly in the spleen but also the liver

68
Q

Where are blood group antigens located

A

in the cell membranes of erythrocytes

69
Q

What are good sources of Vitamin K1 and K2

A

K1 = Green leafy veg, tomatoes
K2 = Own gut bacteria or fermented foods best is natto

70
Q

what does blast refer too

A

immature cell (only partially differentiated)

71
Q

What does the suffix Cytosis refer to

A

more than normal cell numbers

72
Q

What does the suffix Penia refer too

A

Lack of cells

73
Q

Define and describe Leukocytes

A

White blood cells that defend the body against infection and foreign pathogens they make up 1% of the blood volume, they are nucleated and have 5 parts

74
Q

Name the 5 parts of Leukocytes and what percentage do they make up.

A

Neutrophils - 60%
Basophils - 1%
Eosinophils 2-4%
Lymphocytes 30%
Monoscytes - 6 %

75
Q

What are the primary functions and mode of action of Neutrophils.

When would we tend to see Neutrophils raised?

A

Neutrophils are the most abundant white blood cell and account for 60%

Primary Function - Phagocytosis
Mode of Action - Phagocytosis, 1st on the the site of injury/inflammation less than 1 hour.
Release ROS = Reactive Oxygen Species

Raised - Excessive exercise, smoking infection, tissue damage,inflammation diseases e.g RA
Leukemia

76
Q

What are the primary functions and mode of action for Eosinophils

When would these levels be raised

A

Make up 2-4 %
Anti-parasite cells
Functions - Eliminate parasites
Modulation of hypersensitivity reactions (allergies)
Mode of Action - Phagocytosis
Release proteins that have anti- parasitic effect
Migrate to site of injury

Raised - Parasitic infections, allergies atopic asthma

77
Q

What are the primary functions of Monocytes

A

Monocytes - in the blood make up 6%
In tissues monocytes are called macrophages they are the largest
Primary function - Ultimate Phagocytosis
Antigen presentation
Mode of function - Phagocytosis
Releases cytokines e.g Interleukin 1 which promotes fever which activates T cells

78
Q

Primary function of Lymphocytes and mode of action

A

Primary functions:

Include - B cells T Cells and Natural Killer cells (NK)

Abundant in blood and lymphatic tissue where B and T cells are critical for specific antigens and the production of immunological memory.

Mode of action - T cells directly kill specific invading pathogens. NK Cells kill all cells but do this non-specifically.

B Lymphocytes - Produce antibodies (Immunoglobins) to produce an immune response

79
Q

Describe a mast cell

A

Is a sac called a granule which contains histamine and Heparin

80
Q

What is Heparin

A

Anti coagulant

81
Q

What does histamine do

A

It dilates the blood vessels allowing them to become more permeable allowing for more WBC’s to get to the site.

82
Q

What is Antigen presentation and where does it happen

A

creating a marker/identity and passing on to the T Lymphocytes so they can launch a targeted attack on the pathogen

83
Q

What happens in Haemolysis

A

When an Erythrocyte has reached the end of it’s life cycle (90-120 days) it undergoes Haemolysis. 1% of our cells breakdown each day.

Haemolysis is carried out by macrophages (phagocytic cells) mainly found in tissues especially the spleen, bone marrow and liver

The globlin amino acids and iron are recycled.

The waste product from Haemolysis is Bilirubin, which is formed in the spleen it is then carried to the liver where the liver breaks down bilirubin and it is conjugated so it can be effectively excreted through the GIT and in faeces (staining brown.

84
Q

What does conjugated mean

A

for example Bilirubin in the liver must be conjugated (bound to glucuronic acid) for it to be effectively excreted in the GIT

85
Q

What is the chemical symbol for Iron

A

FE+3

86
Q

What type of Iron do we measure in an Iron blood test

A

We use Ferratin (storage form of Iron) we don’t use Free Iron

87
Q

What 4 vitamins are fat soluble

A

A, D E & K

88
Q

What is vitamin K responsible for

A

It s a fat soluble vitamin that is responsible for making 4 clotting factors

89
Q

Name to Phagocytes

A

Neutrophils and Macrophages

90
Q

State number of clotting factors found in the body

A

13

91
Q

When blood vessels are damaged and collagen is exposed what substance is released that triggers vascoconstriction

A

Thromboxane

92
Q

Describe the function of Vitamin K

A

Responsible for the production/synthesis of 4 clotting factors

93
Q

List 3 causes of Iron Deficiency Anaemia

A

Deficient dietary intake
Malabsorption - due to low stomach acid, coeliac crohns
Excessive blood loss

94
Q

What are the signs of general anaemia

A

Shortness of breath on exertion, palpitations, irritability, pallor, fatigue

95
Q

What is meant by Megaloblastic Anaemia

A

Large, immature dysfunctional red blood cells that are unable to carry the amount of oxygen they need

96
Q

What is meant by Leukopenia? Give 2 causes

A

reduced amount of Leukocytes (WBC;s)
Drugs - Chemo Radiation
Bone marrow disease
Infection e.g EBV HIV Hepatitis
B12/Folate deficiency

97
Q

What is meant by Leukaemia

A

A group of bone marrow cancers. Characterised by an abnormal over production of Leukocytes

98
Q

What is the most abundant plasma protein in the blood?

A

Albumin

99
Q

Where does Haemolysis Occur

A

In the spleen

100
Q

Where are blood group antigens located

A

In the cell membrane of erythrocytes

101
Q

What blood group is considered universal donor and why

A

0 - has has no antigens for any antibodies to react with

102
Q

What are the sources of Vitamin K1 and K2

A

K1 = Tomatoes, green leafy veg
K2 - Fermented foods such

103
Q

State one function of macrophages

A

Phagocytosis

104
Q

State the role of thromboxane in clotting

A
105
Q
A

Katie Cytology, Basic Genetics and Histology (5 decks)

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