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Katie Cytology, Basic Genetics and Histology > https://www.brainscape.com/p/409L4-LH-BCDJS > Flashcards

https://www.brainscape.com/p/409L4-LH-BCDJS Flashcards

1
Q

What does Anatomy describe

A

Study of structures that form the body

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2
Q

What is Physiology

A

How the body parts work

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3
Q

What is pathology

A

Study of abnormalities from normal function

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4
Q

What are the 7 characteristics of life

A

Metabolism sum of energy in the form of ATP which is the bodies energy currency.
Responsiveness - ability to respond to changes in the environment
Movement - of whole organism cells and structures inside of cells
Growth - in size and number
Differentiation - development to a specialised state
Reproduction - formation of new cells or production of new individual
Life force/vital life force/Qi

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5
Q

What are the 4 characteristics of death

A

Loss of brain function
Loss of heart beat
Absence of breathing
No life force/vital life force/Qi

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6
Q

Define Homeostasis

A

Homeostasis is about the balance (equilibrium) of physiological processes in the body.

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7
Q

What are the physiological variables for homeostatic balance in the body.

A

Body temperature - 36.5 - 37.5
Blood glucose levels - 4-7 mmol-l
Water and electrolyte concentrations
Blood pressure
PH Levels - 6.35 - 7.45
Blood and tissue CO2 and O2 levels
Flow of life force

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8
Q

What is fluid in the blood known as? Is this known as intracellular or extracellular fluid?

A

Plasma, Extracellular

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9
Q

Give 4 examples of extracellular fluid

A

Synovial fluid, blood plasma, lymph fluid, interstitial fluid

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10
Q

Complete the blank-
Proper functioning of the cells relies on xxxxxxxx that is tissue xxxxx. It changes as xxxxx move xxxxx and forth between the xxxxx

A

Interstitial fluid that is tissue within tissue. It changes as substances move back and forth between the blood.

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11
Q

What is synovial fluid

A

a lubricating fluid found in many joints

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12
Q

Inter =
Stitial =

A

between (cells)
positioned

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13
Q

What are the homeostatic control systems

A

Distruptors - detect the change in homeostatic balance
Detectors- receptors that detect the disruption (often nerves)
Control centre - determines the limits of which parameters should be maintained. Evaluates input and generates output.
Effectors - structures that receive output.

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14
Q

What is a feedback system

A

A group of receptors and effectors communicating with their control centre.

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15
Q

Define and explain the 2 types of feedback systems.

A

Negative feedback system - when output reverses the input. The effector response decreases the effect of the original stimulus, maintaining or restoring Homeostasis. This works much like a central heating system.

Positive feedback system - works to strengthen (amplify) one of the body’s controlled conditions. e.g childbirth, milk production, immunity, blood clotting and enzyme reactions.

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16
Q

How is the body organised (7)

A

Atoms and molecules - chemical level
Cells - smallest living unit
tissues - group of cells that work together to preform a function.
Organs - groups of tissues working together
Systems - related organs that have a common function
The organism - All body parts together
Vital force - The energy that creates life

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17
Q

What is the name of the system that is the skin

A

Integumentary ( in-teg-yuh-men-tuh-ree)

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18
Q

What are hormones

A

They are chemical messengers that travel in the blood

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19
Q

What are the 4 body cavities

A

Cranial - head
Thoracic - thorax lungs heart
Abdominal - stomach intestines
Pelvic - reproductive organs and bladder

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20
Q

When was cell theory proposed?
What are the 5 cell theory statements?

A

1839
The cell theory says that all living things are made up of cells and vital forces.
The cell is the structural and functional unit of all living things
All cells are made up of pre existing cells by ‘division’
Cells contain hereditary information in the form of DNA which is passed on to new cells through cell division.
All energy flow of life (metabolism + life force) occurs within cells

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21
Q

What are genes

A

Subsections of DNA

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22
Q

How long in feet is DNA?

A

6 foot

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23
Q

What disease is linked to Aluminium linked too.

A

Aluminium toxicity has been significantly linked to disorders such as Alzheimer’s It can cause damage to neurons in the brain and is also a risk factor for breast cancer.

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24
Q

Where do we find aluminium

A

Widely abundant in kitchen foil, kitchen pans, anti-antiperspirants and a key ingredient in vaccines. The vaccines also contain polysorbate80 which opens the blood brain barrier allowing the aluminium through.

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25
Q

Where do we find aluminium

A

Widely abundant in kitchen foil, kitchen pans, anti-antiperspirants and a key ingredient in vaccines. The vaccines also contain polysorbate80 which opens the blood brain barrier allowing the aluminium through.

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25
Q

Where do we find aluminium

A

Widely abundant in kitchen foil, kitchen pans, anti-antiperspirants and a key ingredient in vaccines. The vaccines also contain polysorbate80 which opens the blood brain barrier allowing the aluminium through.

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26
Q

Name 3 toxic heavy metals

A

Aluminium, Lead and Mercury - they are incredibly toxic and can cause genetic mutations damaging cells and leading to disease.

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27
Q

What is stagnation of energy caused by

A

Dietary choices, lifestyle influences, drugs and exposure to harmful substances such as radiation

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28
Q

What is a free radical and what do they do

A

An oxygen filled molecule they are unstable and highly reactive molecules that have lost part of their atomic structure. They go round the body damaging cells and membranes. In order to make them stable we need antioxidants which will donate the missing electron.

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29
Q

What is Oxidative damage and what causes it

A

Oxidative damage is the damage caused by free radicals. It often occurs due to toxins, stress, smoking and diets rich in processed foods and sugar.

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30
Q

What is the main difference between a Prokaryotic Cell and Eukaryotic Cell

A

Prokaryotic cell contains no nucleus and no membrane bound organelles.

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31
Q

What is cell division called in Prokaryote cells

A

binary fission (rapid mitosis)

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32
Q

What process do Eukaryote cells use for division

A

Mitosis

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33
Q

What does DNA Stand for

A

Deoxyribonucleic Acid

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34
Q

What does RNA stand for

A

Ribonucleic Acid

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35
Q

What do the cells consist of internally

A

Cytosol - Watery fluid inside the cells
Organelles - small specialised structures inside a cell
Cytoplasm - cell content excluding the nucleus but including cytosol and organelles.

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36
Q

What is disease in the body

A

A disruption of body physiology can cause disease.

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37
Q

what causes stagnation of energy

A

Dietary choices, lifestyle factors, drugs and harmful substances such as radiation

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38
Q

what is the structure of the cell membrane

A

Phospholipid Bylayer, that has phosphate heads (hydrophillic) on the outside and lipid tails on the inside hydrophobic (water hating)

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39
Q

What is the cell membrane studded with

A

Transmembrane proteins, and other fats such as cholesterol.

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40
Q

What is the cell membrane and what does it do

A

A flexible semipermeable membrane that separates the cells external and internal environment. It allows for the movement of substances in and out of cells.

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41
Q

Give 3 examples of the functions that transmembrane proteins perform

A

Transport substances in and out of the cells including large molecules such as Glucose and electrically charge molecules such as H+ K+

Immunological identity - Helps our immune cells recognise our own cells and stops white blood cells from attacking our own body

Receptors - recognition sites for hormones etc

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42
Q

What is a molecule with an electrical charge known as

A

Ion

43
Q

What are cell junctions

A

Cell junctions are contact/communication points between tightly packed cells.

44
Q

What are the 2 types of cell junctions

A

tight junctions and gap junctions

45
Q

Where are cell tight junctions found and what do they do

A

Found in the stomach, bladder and intestines and they fuse cells together to reinforce the junctions and seal of passageways to avoid leakages e.g leaky gut

46
Q

Where are Gap Junctions found and what are they.

A

They are found between neighbouring cells and are small fluid filled tunnels. Mainly found in nerve and muscle cells

47
Q

What are the 7 Key Organelles in our body

A

Nucleus
Nucleolus
Mitochondria
Golgi Apparatus
Endoplasmic Reticulum
Lysosomes
Cytoskeleton

48
Q

What are Chromosomes and where are they found.

A

Chromosomes is a condensed form of DNA. They are thread like structures made up of Nucleic acid and proteins. They are found in the nucleus of most living cells and carry genetic information in the form of DNA

49
Q

How many Chromosomes does a cell contain

A

46 or 23 pairs

50
Q

What are normal body cells called

A

Somatic

51
Q

Where do we find genes

A

they are arranged along chromosomes

52
Q

How long is 1 sequence of DNA?

A

6ft

53
Q

How many genes does each sequence of DNA hold

A

20k

54
Q

What are Chromosomes formed of

A

DNA that has coiled up

55
Q

Explain the structure of DNA

A

DNA forms a double helix which coils around proteins called Histones. It is organised into a mass of string like fibres called Chromatin.
Just before cell division the Chromatin condenses even further and is subdivded into 46 individual molecules called Chromosomes

56
Q

What pair of Chromosomes controls the inheritance of sex

A

23rd pair which is the last pair

57
Q

What Sex is XY and XX

A

XY is male and XX is female

58
Q

What is a Gene and what does is do?

A

A Gene is a subsection of DNA that acts as instructions to make proteins.
It holds the information to build and maintain cells and pass genetic traits to off spring

59
Q

What is the Cytoskeleton

A

The cytoskeleton is the structure of the cell. It is a network of protein filaments called (microtubules and microfilaments) that extends through the cytosol

60
Q

What does the Cytoskeleton do for the cell, list 3

A

Assists with movement of the cell e.g to enable white blood cells to migrated to site of injury. In muscle cells they enable muscle contraction.

Gives the cell its physical support and shape.

Assists in cell division - by moving Chromosomes apart.

61
Q

What organelle is the 2nd largest

A

Mitochondria

62
Q

What is the job of Mitochondria

A

To produce energy in the form of ATP which is the energy currency of the body.

63
Q

What does ATP stand for

A

Adenosine Triphosphate

64
Q

Describe the structure of Mitochondria

A

They contain a double layered membrane with fluid in between. The inner membrane is a series of folds called ‘cristae’ which produce a vast surface area

65
Q

Where do we find the most Mitochondria

A

Muscle cells including those in the heart are thought to contain the most mitochondria as they use ATP to generate muscle contraction

66
Q

How to Mitochondria create ATP and what is the equation

A

In a process called Aerobic Respiration

(glucose) + oxygen releases carbon dioxide water and ATP

67
Q

What do Ribosomes do and what does their name reflect?

A

Ribosomes act as the sites of protein synthesis. The name reflects the high content of RNA

68
Q

What organelle are Ribosomes sometimes bound to and what is this known as when the are bound

A

They are bound to the rough endoplasmic reticulum and are called stationary

69
Q

Ribosomes are either xxxxx or Stationary - complete the missing word

A

Free

70
Q

What is the job of free Ribosomes

A

They make protein for inside the cell

71
Q

What is the job of stationary Ribosomes

A

To make protein for outside the cell

72
Q

What does ER stand for and what is the structure

A

Endoplasmic Reticulum it is a network of membranes in the form of flattened sacs. It extends from the nuclear envelope throughout the Cytoplasm to the cell membrane

73
Q

What organelle is the Rough ER continuous with? #

Why does it have a rough appearance and what is it’s job

A

Rough ER is continuous with the Nuclear Membrane.

It has a rough appearance as its outer surface is studded with Ribosomes.

The rough ER transports and synthesises proteins

74
Q

What is the job of smooth ER

A

Smooth ER contains unique enzymes that

Synthesise lipids and steroid hormones
In the liver the enzymes detoxify drugs and alcohol.
In the muscle it releases calcium for muscle contraction

75
Q

What is the job of the Golgi apparatus

A

This is the post office of the cell, is sorts packages and transports proteins received from the rough ER

It consists of flattened membranous sacs and most cells have several.

A transport vesical buds off from the rough ER and moves towards the Golgi and it releases proteins into it. Enzymes that are released modify the proteins then they bud off in transport vesicles.

76
Q

What is a gene

A

A Gene is a subsection of DNA that acts as instructions for proteins

77
Q

What is mitosis and what is it used for?

A

Somatic Cells reproduce via mitosis to create 2 identical daughter cells from the mother cell, by one division and they are called Diploid cells.

It is used for growth and repair

78
Q

How many chromosomes are in Diploid cells

A

46 or 23 pairs

79
Q

What is the process for Mitosis

A

A full set of chromosomes is duplicated then evenly distributed into both daughter cells. The Chromosomes are split (pulled apart by the protein filaments that make up the cytoskeleton

80
Q

What are the rates of Mitosis for:
1. Skin
2. Taste buds
3. Liver
4. Stomach and intestines (Superficial lining/mucosa)
5. Red Blood Cells

A
  1. every 40 days
  2. every 10 days
  3. Liver can fully regenerate from a quarter of its tissue in five months.
  4. Every 5 days
  5. Every 90 - 100 days
81
Q

What 2 types of cells in the body are unable to undergo mitosis?

A

Neurons - which are specialised nerve cells
Skeletal muscle cells are unable to renew, these cells can grow in size but not in number

82
Q

Describe Meiosis

A

Meiosis is the process in which gametes are formed.
Meiosis produces 4 Haploid cells through 2 divisions.
The 4 cells that are produced are non identical as the chromosomes overlap which allows for genetic variability.

83
Q

How many Chromosomes in a Haploid cell?

A

23

84
Q

What is a Gamete?

A

Sex Cell

85
Q

What is the name given to a
Male Gamete?
Female Gamete?

A

Sperm
Egg/Ovum

86
Q

What is fertilisation (conception) and what happens after this.

A

Fusion of a male and female gamete which leads to the formation of a zygote. The Zygote (Diploid cell) which has 2 copies of each chromosome 23 pairs one from each parent.
The Zygote then undergoes Mitosis and develops into an embryo and finally a foetus after 8 weeks.

87
Q

What does a mutation describe

A

A change in genetic information (DNA Sequence)

88
Q

What is the name of the 4 Amino acid Nucleobases?

Which one goes with which?

A

A = Adenine
G = Guanine
C = Cytosine
T = Thiamine

A always goes with T
G always goes with C

89
Q

What can cause mutations to occur?

A

Mutagenic agents such as, vaccines, smoking and radiation.

90
Q

Which is double stranded and which is single stranded out of RNA and DNA

A

DNA is double stranded
RNA is single stranded

91
Q

What are the 2 phases of Protein Synthesis and what happens in each phase.

A

Transcription - is where a copy of the gene is made into mRNA. mRNA takes a single stranded copy which goes out of the Nuclear pores and travels to a Ribosome.

The next phase is translation where the Ribosome reads the code and produces a chain of amino acids to form the required protein

92
Q

What are the 2 types movement that occur within cells?

A

Active and passive transport

93
Q

What are the 3 types of passive transport?

A

Diffusion - movement of small molecules down the concentration gradient - usually gases, e.g Oxygen

Osmosis - balances water concentration and is the passive movement of water in the cell. If the fluid is too concentrated it will dilute it and if too diluted will concentrate the fluid.

Facilitated diffusion - movement down the concentration gradient aided by transmembrane proteins. For larger substances such as glucose and charged molecules e.g H+

94
Q

Describe Active transport and give 3 examples?

A

Active transport is the movement of substances from low to high concentration gradient and requires ATP (energy).

  1. Sodium potassium pump - use protein pumps in the cell membrane to allow specific modules such as H+ , K+ Na + to move up the concentration gradient. It is important for nerves
  2. Endocytosis - Particles are engulfed by the cell either by:
    Phagocytosis - cell eating (solids)
    Pinocytosis - cell drinking (liquids
  3. Exocytosis - removal of waste from the cell. The material fuses with the cell membrane before being expelled.
95
Q

What are the 4 types of tissue in the body?

A

Epithelial tissue
Connective tissue
Muscular tissue
Nervous tissue

96
Q

What is Epithelial tissue and where is it found

A

Epithelial tissue is a covering or lining (Glandular) tissue that consists of tightly packed cells in either single or multiple layers. It can be located in the blood vessels, heart, lungs, reproductive organs, urinary tract, gastrointestinal tract, skin and eyes

97
Q

Give an example of where we might find single layered epithelial tissue?

A

Lungs and walls of capillaries

98
Q

What is a gland?

A

Single cell or groups of epithelial cells that produce secretions.

99
Q

What are the 2 types or glands

A

Exocrine glands - secrete their substances into ducts, secretions included saliva, milk, sebum sweat and enzymes.

Endocrine glands - secrete hormones, these secretions enter the interstitial fluid and diffuse into the blood.

100
Q

What organ has both Exocrine and Endocrine glands?

A

Pancreas has both the Exocrine releases enzymes to help us break down foods then the endocrine gland releases hormones that regulate blood glucose levels.

101
Q

What is the structure of connective tissue

A

Cells in connective tissue are widely spaced apart.
The spaces between the cells are called the extra cellular matrix and contain the ground substance and protein fibres.

102
Q

What produces produces protein fibres

A

Fibroblasts

103
Q

What are the 2 protein fibres found in connective tissue

A

Collagen and Elastin

104
Q

Where do you find connective tissue?

A

Bone, cartilage and blood

105
Q

What is Extracellular Matrix formed of?

A

Extracellular Matrix - which is formed of Ground substance between the cells and determines the functionality of the tissue (fluid, semi-fluid or calcified). It contains water and Hyaluronic acid and chondroitin sulphate

106
Q

What 3 cells do you find in connective tissue

A

Fibroblasts - Large and most abundant cells they secrete protein fibres to make collagen and elastic fibres. Active in repair and healing.

Adipocytes - Store triglycerides (fat)

White blood cells
Macrophages - engulf foreign cells (phagocytes)
Lymphocytes - produce antibodies
Mast cells - release mast chemicals

Katie Cytology, Basic Genetics and Histology (5 decks)

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