Case Studies Paper 2 (Distribution, Climate, Resource) Flashcards
(26 cards)
China’s patterns of development and Distribution:
Population mainly eastern as it is easier to develop on due to its flat plains and Yangtze and Yellow rivers providing water for farmland and cities
Western China least populated due to Himalayas and Gobi desert
11% of the 1.4 billion live on 0.5% of the land with 50% of the population living on 8.2% of the land whereas 50% of the land is occupied by just 4.2% of the population.
Over 90% of people living in poverty live in rural areas
The standard of housing is often poor
People are being moved to apartment blocks, to free up land for factories
Literacy rates in rural areas are 65%, but in urban areas they are 84%
The rate of unemployment in rural areas is over 30%
Uneven pop dens makes economic growth uneven with 4 provinces on the east coast having GDP per capita of $13000 compared to Gansu in north China with only $4936 per capita
The uneven distribution is continuing as since 1978 160 million have moved from rural to urban, boosting economy but causing overcrowding
Partly due to wage as in urban areas wage is 40% higher than in rural
Mega regions have been proposed to solve overpopulation with plan for mega city Jing Jin Ji which would hold 130 million by 2035 and combine 9 cities including shanghai.
South Africa’s Patterns of Development and Distribution:
Population dens very uneven as high dens around mineral rich areas e.g cape town and Durban vs north cape province w/ dens of 5 people/km2. Pop dens decreases as move from SE to NW reflecting rainfall patterns and mountain regions in west.
Migration caused by industrial revolution and forced migration during apartheid and then movement after collapse of system and abolishment of white towns. More black people then migrated to cities for work and many forced to live in substandard living on edges of towns
1995-2015 urban pop increased from 55% to 65% due to natural increase. Lots of rural-urban migration leading to Johannesburg being only megacity. Been increase in circular migration where workers repeatedly move between home and host area.
More women move to cities recently after years on farms and undergo circular migration.
Had lots of internal migration e.g rural free state to urban Gauteng or international as south sudanese escape to south africa from civil unrest.
Contrasting countries that demonstrate demographic change- Japan
Japans ageing population
27% are over 65
Lack of workers and resistance to foreign workers with 1/60 being an immigrant but in the UK it’s 1/8
20% of prisoners are 65+ and within 5 years over 50% re offend. UK is 4% 65+
Birth rate is 6.8/1000 and death rate is 11.1/1000
Population pyramid shifted from pyramid to column
Problems include:
Depletion of labour force, deterioration of labour force, trade deficit, cost of pensions+healthcare for their elderly, falling demand of schools and teachers, a need for in-migration to fuel any increase in the workforce.
Syria: Forced Migration
Has led to 500,000+ deaths and displaced 13.3 million people, over half Syria’s population since it’s start in 2011
6.7 million internally displaced and 5.5 million living in 5 neighbouring countries w/ 3.6 million in Turkey alone, the largest refugee population hosted by a single country
Impacts on Syria:
Loss of life, homes, jobs, 2 mil kids out of school and 1.6 million at risk of dropping out, bombing has flattened land, affecting crop yields and much of the water is polluted
Impacts of Jordan:
Zaatari camp home to 80,000 and has had 20,000 births there despite being the 2nd most water scarce country in the world.
Impacts of Turkiye:
In 2016, refugees allowed work permits and since then a total of 1599 new companies have been started by Syrian refugees
Impacts of Lebanon:
Overwhelming burden on infrastructure, society and the economy w/ most refugees in poverty
Lebanon has the highest number of refugees per capita in the world
Contrasting countries that demonstrate demographic change- Kerala
Kerala gender equality issues:
Kerala is most densely populated area of india and improved health, literacy and education + decreased birth rate. This success down to political stability, social reform and status of women in society. Girls have been educated the same as boys and there’s open access to uni and college and women often study to be doctors or nurses. Women have autonomy in personal life and Kerala women regarded as most well-off women in India as has highest female to male ratio in India of 1084:1000, female literacy rate increase to 92% from 86% in 1991 and female life expectancy in the area is 74 for females and 70 for males. Kerala total fertility rate is 1.9. However, despite this women are marginalised in the economic process with women’s share in the labour market of Kerala being among lowest in India and 18% of educated males are unemployed whereas 71% of educated women are unemployed. For those in work, women are more likely to be in informal sector and in low paying jobs. Violence and sexual harassment against women is still common. Many self help groups have been established for women and numerous government programmes women can’t be considered equal to men.
Demographic dividend: South Korea
South Korea’s dividend began in 1960 after Korean war and ended in 1990 and resulted in a rapid transition from high to low fertility and enabled economic growth. In 1962 TFR was 6.3 births/woman but in 1985 it was 2.2 births, and life expectancy in that time increased from 53 to 68. 2025, 0.78 births/woman
Wanted 45% of married couples w/ family planning. Invested in health centres across provinces like Gyeonggi and Jeolla to provide contraception and reproductive health services achieving this result.
Benefits of dividend to Korea:
Reduction in TFR and increased life expectancy contributed to a large and young workforce
Improvements in education, women were able to remain in careers, thereby boosting the economy
Made education system more equal and led to one of the most educated populations in the world. 69.8% of South Koreans aged 25 to 34 years have completed some form of tertiary education. 34.2% of South Koreans aged 25 to 64 have a bachelor’s degree. Rapidly grew economic development through a skilled workforce. Introduction of universal 9-year compulsory education under the Basic Education Law of 1962. Primary school gross enrolment in 1970 99%.
Changes to pop size and age structure contributed to economic growth and allowed South Korea to become an export orientated economy (exports provide over 50% of GDP). Rapid industrialisation caused urban growth and improved infrastructure across the country, making South Korea one of the fastest growing economies with an average 4% GDP growth per year
Anti-natalist China
1 child policy 1979-2016 although relaxed in 1999. Said couples mustn’t marry until late 20s and only allowed one child. If couple sticks to rules, salary rise by 5-10% but if disobeyed, salary cut by 10% and a fine that typically bankrupted. Exceptions were rural and ethnic minority families.
Reduced pop growth by 400 million, prevented the predicted famine and caused pop to peak at 1.5 billion.
But women forced to have abortions as late as 9 months, people under pressure from family and the ‘granny police’ and sons preferred so resulted in large female infanticide.
Impacts:
Decrease in labour force w/ increased dependency ratio, ageing pop of 450 million 60+ and sex imbalance with 118 males to 100 females.
Pro-natalist policies in Japan
10% 80+ and by 2036 1/3 of population will be 65+ and the BR is very low
Angel plan created which gives paid parental leave, childcare, services and child allowances. Free preschool and day care for kids 3-5 and cost of IVF reduced and introduced paternity leave ad generous paid parental leave for 24 months but BR still 1.36/woman
Have changed immigration policy to allow foreign workers with vocational skills to stay for up to 5 years but couldn’t bring their families but if they had advanced skills they were allowed to bring families and live there indefinitely.
Created age free society where employers are encouraged to keep employees 70+, hire older people, extend retirement age and increase opportunities for elderly
Pro-natalist Russia
Russia has a low fertility rate of 1.5 births per woman
First policy in 1936 where families were rewarded for having 3 or more children
The State increased its help to pregnant women, large families and single mothers
Abortion was a criminal offence
In 1981, Russia reduced the childbearing age and closed contraceptive factories
2006, the fertility rate was 1.3 births per woman so women with large families were called ‘Hero Mothers’ and given medals and gifts
There was an increase in child benefits and maternity leave and if women gave up work they were offered 40% of what they had previously earned
Payments of 250,000 Russian Roubles to women who give birth to a second/third child
All-expense-paid summer camp for young adults and made ‘Day of Conception’, 12/9/2006 ‘citizens are relieved of work and are encouraged to use their afternoons to copulate and if child is born on 12/6/2007, receive cars, TVs and other prizes
BR rose by 4.5% but by 2011 the fertility rate was 1.54, a 21% increase. However, these increases were short-lived and the effects of the policies have worn-off
Trafficking in Nigeria
Many women trafficked between Nigeria and Western Europe for sexual exploitation and Nigerian women account for over 10% of trafficked people. The prostitution gangs are also entangled in the European drug smuggling gangs.
Examine effects of global climate change (CC) on communities and natural systems:
CC natural process due to milankovich cycles, albedo effect and volcanic activity and GHGs crucial for life survival on earth. However, anthropogenic activities enhance effect.
Gorner glacier 🇨🇭 retreated by 2.5km in 130 years
Ice in artic decrease as global max and min shrinks and by 2040 predicted ships could sail over north pole.
Melting ice increases sea levels 5cm/year threatenign low lying places e.g 🇫🇯 🇹🇻 where CC migrants are occuring and 🇹🇻uploading 3D image of islands onto metaverse.
🇧🇩 75% of contry less than 10m above sealevel and CC enhances monsoon with monsoon rainfall predicted ot increase by 40% in 2030 increasing no crops damaged and deaths
Shrinking in ice has positive feedback as decreases amount of light reflected in albedo so increases temperature and more ice melts etc.
Also increase temp causes permafrost to thaw releasing CH4 and CO2 increasing temp so more thawing.
Increase CO2 decreases sea pH causing coral bleaching as zooxanthellae die
Drought more common causing wildfires in 🇨🇦 and since 1970 area burnt by fires doubled and 1000s of trees killed and destruction of carbon sink. 🇬🇭 vulnerbale to drought as rainfall expected to decrease 4% by 2040 making crop failure likely and famine possible as 45% of the population work in agriculture.
UK annual rainfall to increase by 10% in 2050 and NW wetter and more prone to flooding and SE drier and water stress increase. Could face first storm surge since 1953 which would cost £200 billion as could submerge parts of london like in 1953 where 50 underground stations were flooded and 40% of UK fuel was effected.
What are the geopolitical agreements to mitigate CC and when were these selaed?
Mitigation can be by international agreements:
1988, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) set up to assess the ‘risks of human-induced climate change
Earth Summit, Rio 1992
Set out aims to stabilise greenhouse gas levels
Kyoto Protocol 1997
150 countries agreed to reduce GHGs emitted. Industrialised countries would reduce emissions to below the levels in 1990 but MICS like 🇨🇳, 🇮🇳 exempt and 🇺🇸 didn’t sign up. 🇨🇦 withdrew in 2011 as without 🇨🇳, 🇺🇸 would not work
Paris Agreement 2015
Global agreement to limit global warming to 2oC (preferably 1.5oC) included reducing CO2 emissions by at least 60% by 2050. Signed by 196 countries
Conference of the Parties (COP)
The UN annual meeting to discuss climate change. e.g COP 26 in glasgow
where nations agreed to take actions to further reduce GHGs
What are global examples of interactions in the Water, Food and Energy (WFE) nexus?
Food production and its impact on Energy and Water security:
Energy used to grow, transport and process food, accounting for 30% of global energy use.
Increased demand for food increases energy use. New technology, such as hydroponics, uses more energy for light and heat
70+% of freshwater withdrawals for agriculture
Pollution from livestock, fertilisers and pesticides reduces freshwater availability and food processing uses lots of water
Energy and its impact on Food and Water security:
Growth of biofuels and solar farms use land which could have grown crops
Mining and drilling for fossil fuels creates waste, polluting farmland
Use of water for energy production and cooling and fracking uses lots of water.
Dams for HEP reduces discharge downstream but can improve water security in some areas
Water and its impact of Energy and Food:
Urbanisation increases demand for water, reducing amount available for food growth
Desalination requires lots of energy and lots of energy needed for treatment of waste water and water abstraction
Water shortages impact energy production
Give example where 2 places are affected by water, food and energy interactions:
A lack of available water to cool power plants in India caused loss of 8.2 terawatt hours as power plants couldn’t function
Europe uses land to grow feedstock to biofuels but could be used to produce food for 120 million.
Bangladesh WFE insecurities:
Water:
40% don’t have access to safe water
70% no access to improved sanitation
50% drink water with arsenic in it
Agriculture uses 80% of water withdrawl
Reduced Himalayan Ice stores decrease supply further
Food:
11 million suffer from acute hunger
36% of <5 suffer from stunting showing chronic malnutrition
Increased coastal flooding causes salinisation affecting crop yields with soil salinity increasing by 26% over last 35 years
Arable land lost to erosion of river banks and coast and due to building of settlements and industry, 69000 hectares of farmland lost/year.
Extreme weather impacts crops and livestock, e.g Cyclone Sidr killed 500,000+ livestock and damaged 1.5 million hectares of land
Energy:
Electricity availability increased from 20% (2000) to 85%
Relies on imports of energy resources heavily to generate electricity
Aims to be 15% renewable by 2030
Increased solar power but resorted to being on top of roofs to reduce use of arable land
Denmark WFE securities and what are the threats:
Water:
Has Water surplus as supply is much greater than demand by 180%
90% connected to main sewage network
Most of water from groundwater sources and use of water is split equally between agriculture, domestic and industrial use
Threats:
Salt intrusion to ground water as sea levels rise and coast floods
Salinisation due to increased demand on groundwater
Food:
Only 1.8% w/ severe food insecurity
Only imports 13% of food
Threats:
Despite longer growing season as Temp increases, increased need for pesticides, fertilisers and irrigation
More precipitation in winter and rising sea levels increase flood risk and crop loss
Water temp increase impacted native species like salmon and trout. New species have been found though e.g hake and been increase in toxic algae blooms risking eutrophication and threatens fish populations
Energy:
Imports 12% of energy
100% have access to electricity
Reduced Fossil fuel reliance as all oil power stations shut and coal ones are being shut down
Nexus approach to water: South Asia
The Hindu Kush Himalayan (HKH) region vital for promotion of food, energy and food downstream.
Water:
Growing water demand for industry and agriculture as annual water demand expected to increase by 55% from 2005. Making access to potable water harder as supply varies and water-intensive practices cause increase in water born disease w/ high child mortality and poor health
High dependency of downstream communities on upstream for water to grow food and generate HEP. This has caused a need for enhanced upstream coordination and development of the HKH resources.
70-80% of agricultural production depends on groundwater so adaptation must be made as water table declines and groundwater pumping requires excessive energy which further increases electricity demand.
Nexus approach to food: South Asia
Food:
46% of world undernourished live there. To meet the needs of this population, food production in the area needs to double over the next 25 years
25% world pop in 3% of land meaning agricultural production needs to increase by 70% but places pressure on the land, water and energy demand
Arable land dwindling as pop grows and an increase in biofuel feedstock being grown. This limits area for the agricultural growth to occur and there’s a fine line between land demand for food, ecosystem service and bio-energy production
Food production becoming increasingly water intensive so agricultural growth is constrained due to lack of energy and water
Meat production requires more energy and water with 7kg of rice=1kg of meat meaning more water required for food
Food production vulnerable to CC as water availabiltiy uncertain due to rapid glacier melt and change in monsoon patterns.
Nexus approach to energy: South Asia
Energy:
63% of population w/out access to electricity and 65% use biomass for cooking causing an increase in demand for land and water for more energy generation
Hydropower in Himalayas limited in places due to risk of landslides so advancements are limited.The HKH area is solely responsible for HEP but experienced heavy deforestation, land degradation and soil erosion making risk of flooding ever increasing.
Area experienced landlisdes in 2014 after heavy rain and caused mass flooding. Nepal’s deep narrow cnayons would be perfect for HEP and the enegry ministry vowed to build 37,000 megawatts of new hydropower. Apart from brazil, nepal has worlds highest HEP potential.
Societies with contrasting vulnerability to climate change- Bangladesh
80% of Bangladesh is on low-lying delta and since 1970, flooding has increased and will continue to increase as sea levels rise. The densely populated coastal regions are becoming increasing vulnerable to disaster. Monsoon rainfall is predicted to increase by 40% by 2030 and possibly as high as 135% by 2090. In 1998, 75% of land was flooded w/ 1000+ dead and 700,000 hectares of crop destroyed. In 1988 Government made Flood Action Plan (FAP) to protect country from flooding and was funded by world bank. Sluice gates were built on several rivers, providing protection from tidal waves, storm surges and flooding. 200 flood shelters on stilts made for evacuated people, diversion of flood water away from buildings w/ 5000km of drainage channels and 5700km of embankments built. FAP wasn’t success as many parts of project weren’t finished, some of the flooding was needed to maintain agriculture and people still remain vulnerable due to poor construction materials of houses w/ many being made of sand and mud and income levels are low.
Societies with contrasting vulnerability to climate change- Ghana
Climate change causing a decrease in water availability (rainfall expected to decrease by 4% by 2040 and temp projected to increase up to 3 degrees by 2060), increased illness and fatality (increase in vector and waterborne diseases), out migration and increasing poverty. The most vulnerable groups are the poor, elderly, children, indigenous groups etc. Going to cause loss and failure of crops w/ loss of fertile land to desertification and increased pest and crop diseases meaning food security will decrease which is furthered by reduction in fish stocks which also decreases income as fishing contributes to 4.5% of GDP. Reduced water decreases hydro-power production and increases energy cost and there will be a decline in water quality as seawater will contaminate groundwater as sea levels rise.
Government made National Adaptation Plan (NAP) which addresses CC in ‘integrated, coordinated, sustainable manner’. Have built dams, levees and seawalls, preserved and restored natural habitats to provide ecosystem-based services e.g mangrove swamps and educated people about new technologies and CC.
Response of country to CC -UK
Corporate companies have set plans to reduce their effects on CC:
Greenpeace- Involved in protecting oceans, ancient forests, phasing out fossil fuels and promoting renewable energies
M&S- Become net zero by 2040, 10 years earlier than UK government wide strategy, by 2025/26 source product from recycled polyester which will remove rubbish from landfill and remove 1 billion units of plastic.
UK government formed the LEZ and ULEZ zones within the country, especially around the capital and introduced the congestion charge of £15/day and the Boris Johnson when mayor introduced ‘Boris bikes’ to reduce emissions.
Government wants to be both energy secure and net zero by 2050 and all cars to be zero emission by 2035. Recently Starmer unveils £2billion carbon capture deal but possible waste of funds… Has the London Array and North Kent coast array offshore wind farms which is intended to reduce annual CO2 emissions by 900,000 tonnes.
What are two companies that are working together to mitigate climate change internationally:
Ikea and WWF working on 6 climate projects in the climate positive project. Included the sustainable life at home project where customers are helped decrease CO2 emissions, Improving Ikea food range to reduce CO2 and Sustainable Transportation of People (SToP) project which helps decrease CO2 from customer transportation.
Circular economy on a local scale: Sweden
Malmo in Sweden piloting circular economy approach and began in 2018. Bus fleets runs on biogas reducing emissions. Compulsory for households to sort food waste and 98% of household waste is recycled and reused. Recycling and repair of IT equipment has doubled and local construction companies agreed to climate neutral building partnership and water recovery systems installed.
