CBL Flashcards
(42 cards)
1
Q
List the aims of the menstrual cycle
A
- Prepare the body for potential pregnancy.
- Regulate hormonal balance.
- Maintain reproductive health.
- Facilitate the shedding of the uterine lining if no pregnancy occurs.
2
Q
Detail the key hormones of the HPG axis and the mechanisms controlling their synthesis and secretion
A
- Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): Released from the hypothalamus; stimulates the pituitary to release FSH and LH.
- Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): Promotes follicle maturation in ovaries.
- Luteinizing hormone (LH): Triggers ovulation and corpus luteum formation.
- Estrogen and progesterone: Produced by ovaries; regulate feedback on hypothalamus and pituitary.
3
Q
Describe the phases of the menstrual cycle and its endocrinological control
A
- Menstrual phase: Shedding of the uterine lining; low hormone levels.
- Follicular phase: FSH stimulates follicle growth; estrogen rises.
- Ovulation: Surge in LH causes release of an egg.
- Luteal phase: Corpus luteum produces progesterone; prepares the endometrium for implantation.
4
Q
Define the menstrual transition and menopause in physiological terms
A
- Menstrual transition: Perimenopause; characterized by irregular cycles due to fluctuating hormone levels.
- Menopause: Cessation of menstrual cycles for 12 months; decreased estrogen and progesterone production due to ovarian senescence.
5
Q
Describe the basic anatomy of the female pelvis & genitalia
A
- Pelvis: Includes the bony pelvis, pelvic cavity, and pelvic floor muscles.
- Genitalia: Includes external structures (vulva, labia, vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, and ovaries).
6
Q
Give a differential diagnosis for testicular pain
A
- Testicular torsion: Sudden, severe pain due to twisted spermatic cord.
- Epididymitis: Inflammation of the epididymis, often due to infection.
- Orchitis: Inflammation of the testicle, sometimes associated with mumps.
- Inguinal hernia: Intestine protrudes through abdominal wall near groin.
- Trauma: Injury to the testicle or scrotum.
- Hydrocele: Fluid accumulation around the testicle.
- Varicocele: Enlarged veins in the scrotum.
- Testicular cancer: May present as a painless lump or dull ache.
7
Q
Identify the components of semen analysis
A
- Volume: Total amount of ejaculate.
- Sperm concentration: Number of sperm per milliliter.
- Motility: Percentage of moving sperm.
- Morphology: Percentage of normally shaped sperm.
- pH level: Acidity or alkalinity of semen.
- White blood cells: Indicate infection if present.
8
Q
Describe, in general terms, the anatomy of the components of the male reproductive system
A
- Testes: Produce sperm and testosterone.
- Epididymis: Stores and matures sperm.
- Vas deferens: Transports sperm from epididymis to urethra.
- Seminal vesicles: Produce seminal fluid.
- Prostate gland: Produces prostatic fluid, part of semen.
- Urethra: Passage for urine and semen.
- Penis: Organ for sexual intercourse and urination.
9
Q
Appreciate some of the common clinical conditions related to the male reproductive system
A
- Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH): Enlarged prostate causing urinary symptoms.
- Prostatitis: Inflammation of the prostate gland.
- Erectile dysfunction: Inability to achieve or maintain an erection.
- Male infertility: Issues with sperm production or function.
- Testicular cancer: Malignant growth in the testicles.
- STIs: Sexually transmitted infections affecting the genital area.
10
Q
Describe the process of spermatogenesis
A
- Initiation: Begins at puberty in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
- Mitosis: Spermatogonia divide to form primary spermatocytes.
- Meiosis I: Primary spermatocytes divide to form secondary spermatocytes.
- Meiosis II: Secondary spermatocytes divide to form spermatids.
- Spermiogenesis: Spermatids mature into spermatozoa (sperm cells).
11
Q
Give an overview of the clinical and hormonal changes in pregnancy and explain how these may be used in the diagnosis of pregnancy
A
- Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG): Detected in blood and urine; confirms pregnancy.
- Progesterone: Increases to maintain uterine lining.
- Estrogen: Rises to support fetal development and maternal adaptation.
- Clinical signs: Missed menstrual period, nausea, breast tenderness, and positive pregnancy test.
12
Q
Describe the maternal changes of pregnancy in relation to respiratory, cardiovascular, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, and metabolic and endocrine systems
A
- Respiratory: Increased tidal volume and oxygen consumption.
- Cardiovascular: Increased blood volume, cardiac output, and heart rate; decreased blood pressure.
- Gastrointestinal: Slowed motility, increased risk of reflux and constipation.
- Genitourinary: Increased kidney size, GFR, and urinary frequency.
- Metabolic and endocrine: Increased insulin resistance, weight gain, and altered thyroid function.
13
Q
Define the functions of the extra-embryonic structures and describe the key steps in their development
A
- Placenta: Nutrient and waste exchange between mother and fetus; hormone production.
- Amniotic sac: Cushions and protects the fetus.
- Yolk sac: Early blood cell formation.
- Development: Trophoblast invades endometrium, forming chorionic villi; placenta develops from chorion and decidua.
14
Q
Relate pathological conditions of pregnancy to normal physiology with reference to gestational diabetes
A
- Normal physiology: Increased insulin resistance to ensure glucose availability for the fetus.
- Gestational diabetes: Exaggerated insulin resistance; inability to maintain normal glucose levels, leading to hyperglycemia.
15
Q
Demonstrate awareness of the workings of integrated health and social care teams for people with an intellectual disability
A
- Interdisciplinary collaboration: Involves healthcare professionals, social workers, and caregivers.
- Individualized care plans: Tailored to meet the specific needs of the individual.
- Support services: Include education, occupational therapy, and psychological support.
16
Q
Perform a basic antenatal examination on a manikin competently
A
- Steps: Measure fundal height, palpate fetal position, auscultate fetal heart, and assess maternal vital signs.
17
Q
Understand what is meant by faltering growth, short stature, underweight, overweight, and obesity and how to recognize these
A
- Faltering growth: Slower than expected growth rate.
- Short stature: Height significantly below average for age and sex.
- Underweight: Body weight below the normal range for age and height.
- Overweight and obesity: Excess body weight/fat; BMI above normal range.
18
Q
List common causes of growth faltering
A
- Nutritional deficiencies: Inadequate intake of calories or nutrients.
- Chronic illnesses: Conditions like cystic fibrosis, celiac disease.
- Hormonal imbalances: Growth hormone deficiency, hypothyroidism.
- Genetic conditions: Turner syndrome, Down syndrome.
- Psychosocial factors: Neglect, emotional stress.
19
Q
Briefly outline how genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors impact on growth
A
- Genetic factors: Inherited traits determine potential height and growth patterns.
- Nutritional factors: Adequate nutrition is essential for optimal growth.
- Environmental factors: Living conditions, healthcare access, and emotional well-being influence growth.
20
Q
Plot and interpret a weight and height chart
A
- Plotting: Place weight and height measurements on growth chart.
- Interpretation: Assess percentile ranks to determine if growth is within normal ranges.
21
Q
Describe the role of growth assessment as part of child health surveillance
A
- Monitoring development: Regular measurements to track growth patterns.
- Early detection: Identifies potential growth disorders or health issues.
- Intervention: Guides timely medical or nutritional interventions.
22
Q
Identify common risk factors for falls in the older population
A
- Physical factors: Muscle weakness, balance issues, impaired vision.
- Medical conditions: Arthritis, diabetes, dementia.
- Medications: Sedatives, antihypertensives, diuretics.
- Environmental hazards: Poor lighting, loose rugs, slippery floors.
23
Q
Describe key factors in the clinical approach to falls prevention
A
- Assessment: Evaluate risk factors and history of falls.
- Intervention: Strength and balance training, medication review, home safety modifications.
- Education: Teach patients and caregivers about fall prevention strategies.
24
Q
Outline the concepts of frailty and multiple morbidity
A
- Frailty: A syndrome of decreased reserve and resistance to stressors, leading to increased vulnerability.
- Multiple morbidity: Coexistence of multiple chronic diseases or conditions.
25
Describe the consequences of the frailty syndrome
* Increased risk of falls and injuries.
* Higher likelihood of hospitalization and institutionalization.
* Greater dependency and need for support.
* Poorer quality of life and increased mortality.
26
Outline the evidence-based management of frailty
* Comprehensive geriatric assessment: Multidisciplinary evaluation of medical, functional, and psychosocial issues.
* Individualized care plans: Address specific needs and goals.
* Physical activity: Tailored exercise programs to improve strength and balance.
* Nutrition: Ensure adequate intake of calories, protein, and micronutrients.
* Medication review: Minimize polypharmacy and adjust medications as needed.
27
Briefly describe key steps in the management of hip fracture in older patients, appreciating both surgical and non-surgical aspects
* Preoperative care: Stabilize medical conditions, pain management, and hydration.
* Surgical treatment: Options include internal fixation, hemiarthroplasty, or total hip replacement.
* Postoperative care: Early mobilization, physical therapy, and fall prevention strategies.
* Rehabilitation: Focus on regaining function and independence.
* Non-surgical management: Reserved for patients who are not surgical candidates; includes pain control, physical therapy, and supportive care.
28
Define the functions of the extra-embryonic structures and describe the key steps in their development
* Placenta: Functions include nutrient and gas exchange, waste removal, and hormone production. Development begins with implantation; trophoblast cells differentiate into cytotrophoblast and syncytiotrophoblast, forming chorionic villi.
* Amniotic sac: Cushions and protects the fetus; amniotic fluid allows fetal movement and growth. Develops from the amnion, which forms a fluid-filled cavity around the embryo.
* Yolk sac: Early site of blood cell and vessel formation. Develops from the hypoblast and is eventually integrated into the gut.
* Umbilical cord: Connects fetus to the placenta, containing two arteries and one vein. Develops from the connecting stalk.
29
Relate pathological conditions of pregnancy to normal physiology with reference to gestational diabetes
* Normal physiology: Pregnancy induces insulin resistance to ensure glucose supply for the fetus.
* Gestational diabetes: Exaggerated insulin resistance leading to hyperglycemia. Diagnosed by glucose tolerance test; managed with diet, exercise, and insulin if needed. Increases risk of complications such as preeclampsia and macrosomia.
30
Demonstrate awareness of the workings of integrated health and social care teams for people with an intellectual disability
* Team composition: Includes healthcare providers, social workers, educators, and therapists.
* Care coordination: Holistic approach to address medical, psychological, educational, and social needs.
* Communication: Regular meetings and updates among team members; involvement of patient and family in decision-making.
* Support services: Access to specialized programs and resources for education, employment, and daily living support.
31
Perform a basic antenatal examination on a manikin competently
* Steps:
* Introduce and explain the procedure to the patient.
* Wash hands and use appropriate PPE.
* Measure fundal height: From the pubic symphysis to the top of the uterus.
* Palpate for fetal position: Identify fetal lie, presentation, and position.
* Auscultate fetal heart rate: Using a Doppler or fetoscope.
* Assess maternal vital signs: Blood pressure, heart rate, and urinalysis for protein and glucose.
32
Understand what is meant by faltering growth, short stature, underweight, overweight, and obesity and how to recognize these
* Faltering growth: Weight or height falling below expected norms for age and sex.
* Short stature: Height more than 2 standard deviations below the mean for age and sex.
* Underweight: BMI below the 5th percentile for age.
* Overweight: BMI between the 85th and 95th percentiles.
* Obesity: BMI above the 95th percentile.
33
List common causes of growth faltering
* Nutritional: Poor dietary intake, malabsorption syndromes.
* Chronic illnesses: Cystic fibrosis, congenital heart disease, celiac disease.
* Endocrine disorders: Growth hormone deficiency, hypothyroidism, adrenal insufficiency.
* Genetic conditions: Turner syndrome, Down syndrome, Prader-Willi syndrome.
* Environmental factors: Neglect, psychosocial deprivation.
34
Briefly outline how genetic, nutritional, and environmental factors impact on growth
* Genetic: Determines potential height and growth velocity; conditions like achondroplasia and Marfan syndrome affect growth.
* Nutritional: Adequate nutrition is critical; deficiencies in calories, protein, vitamins, or minerals can stunt growth.
* Environmental: Stress, socioeconomic status, and access to healthcare and education influence growth patterns.
35
Plot and interpret a weight and height chart
* Plotting: Mark the child's weight and height on the appropriate growth chart for their age and sex.
* Interpretation: Compare measurements to percentiles; identify trends or deviations from normal growth patterns.
36
Describe the role of growth assessment as part of child health surveillance
* Monitoring development: Regular measurements help track growth and development over time.
* Early detection: Identifies deviations from normal growth, prompting further investigation.
* Intervention: Guides timely interventions, whether nutritional, medical, or psychosocial.
37
Identify common risk factors for falls in the older population
* Physical: Muscle weakness, poor balance, vision impairment.
* Medical conditions: Arthritis, diabetes, stroke, Parkinson's disease.
* Medications: Sedatives, antidepressants, blood pressure medications.
* Environmental hazards: Clutter, poor lighting, slippery floors, loose rugs.
38
Describe key factors in the clinical approach to falls prevention
* Assessment: Comprehensive evaluation including medical history, medication review, physical examination, and home safety assessment.
* Intervention: Strength and balance exercises, assistive devices, medication adjustments, vision correction, and environmental modifications.
* Education: Informing patients and caregivers about fall prevention strategies and safe practices.
39
Outline the concepts of frailty and multiple morbidity
* Frailty: A clinical syndrome characterized by decreased strength, endurance, and physiological function, increasing vulnerability to adverse health outcomes.
* Multiple morbidity: The coexistence of two or more chronic conditions in an individual, complicating management and increasing healthcare needs.
40
Describe the consequences of the frailty syndrome
* ncreased risk of falls and fractures.
* Higher rates of hospitalization and institutionalization.
* Greater dependency on caregivers.
* Reduced quality of life and increased mortality.
41
Outline the evidence-based management of frailty
* Comprehensive geriatric assessment: Evaluates medical, functional, and psychosocial factors.
* Individualized care plans: Tailored interventions focusing on the patient's specific needs.
* Physical activity: Regular exercise to improve strength, balance, and endurance.
* Nutrition: Ensuring adequate intake of nutrients, possibly with supplements.
* Polypharmacy management: Regular review and rationalization of medications.
42
Briefly describe key steps in the management of hip fracture in older patients, appreciating both surgical and non-surgical aspects
* Preoperative care: Stabilize the patient's condition, manage pain, ensure adequate hydration and nutrition.
* Surgical treatment: Options include internal fixation, hemiarthroplasty, or total hip arthroplasty, depending on fracture type and patient condition.
* Postoperative care: Early mobilization with physical therapy, pain management, prevention of complications such as deep vein thrombosis.
* Rehabilitation: Comprehensive rehabilitation program to restore function and independence.
* Non-surgical management: Pain control, bed rest, and supportive care for patients unable to undergo surgery; involves careful monitoring and prevention of complications.
