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Intro to Biotech > Cells and Replication > Flashcards

Cells and Replication Flashcards

1
Q

what is cell theory?

A

the cell is an organism’s basic unit of structure and function
- all organisms are made of cells
- all cells come from pre-existing cells

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2
Q

what are the three domain classifications of organisms?

A

bacteria, archaea, eukarya

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3
Q

archaea look like ______ on the outside and ______ on the inside

A

bacteria, eukarya

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4
Q

almost all bacteria/prokaryotes are ____-celled

A

single

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5
Q

almost all eukarya are ____-celled

A

multi

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6
Q

basic features of all cells

A
  • enclosed by a dynamic [plasma membrane] that regulates the passage of materials between the cell and its surroundings
  • contain a semifluid substance called [cytosol]
  • use [DNA] as their genetic info
  • have [ribosomes] that make proteins
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7
Q

eukaryotic cell vs. prokaryotic cell

A

eukaryotic cell (animals, plants, fungi, and protists): membrane-enclosed organelles, nucleus, larger, more complex
prokaryotic cell (bacteria, archaea): no membrane-enclosed organelles, no nucleus, smaller, less complex

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8
Q

what is the organelle in plant cells called?

A

chloroplast (converts sunlight into sugar)

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9
Q

do both plant and animal cells have mitochondria?

A

yes

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10
Q

why is plant tissue stronger than animal tissue?

A

because of their surrounding cell wall

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11
Q

dynamic biological membrane

A
  • dual bilayer of phospholipids
  • proteins formed in pores
  • turn on or off certain genes based on environmental stimuli
  • barrier and start of signaling cascade
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12
Q

where are genes turned on and off?

A

in nucleus

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13
Q

nucleus

A

contains chromosomes, made of chromatin (DNA and proteins)
- contains nucleoli where ribosomal subunits are made
- pores regulate entry and exit of materials

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14
Q

ribosomes

A

protein synthesis

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15
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

smooth ER: synthesis of lipids, metabolism of carbohydrates, Ca2+ storage, detoxification of drugs and poisons
rough ER: aids in synthesis of secretory proteins from bound ribosomes; adds carbohydrates to proteins; produces new membrane

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16
Q

Golgi apparatus

A

modification of proteins, carbohydrates on proteins, and phospholipids; synthesis of polysaccharides; sorting of Golgi products, which are then released in vesicles

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17
Q

lysosome

A

breakdown of ingested substances, cell macromolecules, and damaged organelles for recycling

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18
Q

vacuole

A

(mostly in plants) digestion, storage, waste disposal, water balance, cell growth, and protection

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19
Q

mitochondrion function

A

cellular respiration

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20
Q

chloroplasts function

A

(in plants) photosynthesis

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21
Q

peroxisome

A

oxidative organelles which breaks down toxic molecules

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22
Q

nucleus contains ___________

A

most of cell’s DNA

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23
Q

additional genes, not in nucleus, are in _________ in and __________

A

mitochondria, chloroplasts

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24
Q

most of the cell’s tRNAs are produced in the __________

A

mitochondrion

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25
Q

genome

A

the complete set of genes or genetic material [DNA in an organism’s nucleus and mitochondria (and chloroplasts)] present in a cell or organism

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26
Q

genomics

A

the large scale study of sets of genes within and between species

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27
Q

chromatin

A

complex of DNA and proteins

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28
Q

genes found on

A

chromosomes

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29
Q

in eukaryotes, during cell division, chromatin condenses to form discrete ____________

A

chromosomes

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30
Q

human genome is diploid or haploid

A

diploid (contains two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent, 23 from each parent)

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31
Q

normal human karyotype

A

23 from each parent, 22 same pairs, last pair is either XX (female) or XY (male)

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32
Q

gene is unit of ___________

A

inheritance

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33
Q

what is a gene

A

a sequence of nucleotides on DNA that provide cells with with the info needed to a produce a specific protein (or for functional RNA molecules)

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34
Q

how many genes are on each chromosome?

A

hundreds - thousands of genes

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35
Q

one of copy of the human genome consists of _____________

A

approximately 3 billion base pairs of DNA, distributed across 23 pairs of chromosomes

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36
Q

how many nucleotides in genes?

A

about 1000-4000 nucleotides per gene

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37
Q

traits

A

organisms inherited (so in genes) physical appearance; phenotypic traits

38
Q

some traits are controlled by ______ gene(s), but some by ______ gene(s)

A

a single gene, multiple genes

39
Q

different environmental stimuli lead to ____________________

A

expression of different genes

40
Q

DNA replication

A

the ability of cells to divide is the basis of all reproduction, growth, and repair of multicellular organisms

41
Q

before a cell divides, it must ________ its DNA

A

replicate

42
Q

in reproduction, cells go from ______ to ________

A

haploid, diploid

43
Q

isolation of pure DNA (DNA was genetic material) was done by

A

Oswald Avery (1940)

44
Q

the double-helical model for the structure of DNA was proposed by

A

James Watson and Francis Crick (1953)

45
Q

how did the double helix model of DNA show how the molecule can carry info?

A
  1. to serve as template for duplication
  2. for synthesis of proteins
46
Q

pyrimidine bases

A

cytosine, uracil (in RNA), thymine (in DNA)

47
Q

purine bases

A

adenine and guanine

48
Q

3 main chemical groups in each nucleotide

A

phosphate group, pentose sugar group (pyrimidine or purine), and nitrogenous base

49
Q

nucleotide

A

building blocks (monomers) of DNA

50
Q

nucleotide base pairs

A

A-T
G-C
A-U (in RNA)

51
Q

phosphodiester bond

A

holds phosphate group to sugar group in DNA backbone

52
Q

what are the ends of DNA?

A

5’ end and 3’ end

53
Q

polarity in both DNA strands

A

a free phosphate group (PO4-3) on the 5’ end
a free hydroxyl group (OH) on 3’ end
basically no phosphodiester bond on ends

54
Q

the DNA strands are _______ to each other

A

anti-parallel (one strand goes in 5’ to 3’ direction, and the paired strand goes in 3’ to 5’ direction)

55
Q

paired DNA strands are stabilized by ________ between complimentary bases

A

H-bonds (A-T, G-C)

56
Q

more A-T pairs or more G-C pairs

A

G-C pairs

57
Q

Hydrogen bonds

A

form when positively charged H is attracted to negatively charged atoms (S, O, N)
- weak bonds

58
Q

semi-conservative

A

DNA replication is semi-conservative
1. parent molecule
2. separation of strand
3. 2 new molecules each consisting of “daughter” strand and original strand
(slide 30 for pics) –> 2 new DNA for each original

59
Q

DNA replication begins at

A

origins of replication (ori)

60
Q

origin of replication (ori)

A

regions where the two DNA strands are separated, opening up a replication “bubble”

61
Q

what has one oriC?

A

bacterial chromosomes (and plasmids)

62
Q

what has 100s-1000s of oriC?

A

eukaryotic chromosome

63
Q

replication fork

A

Y-shapes; at the end of each replication bubble, where new DNA strands elongate

64
Q

what direction is replication done?

A

replication proceeds in both directions from each origin, until entire molecule is copied

65
Q

enzymes and other proteins in DNA replication

A

helicases, single-strand binding (SSB) proteins, gyrase (or topoisomerase), DNA polymerase III, RNA primase, DNA polymerase I, DNA ligase

66
Q

enzymes are

A

a specific type of protein that performs a specific type of function; catalyst for specific reaction

67
Q

helicases

A

enzymes that untwist the double helix at the replication fork

68
Q

single-strand binding (SSB) proteins

A

bind and stabilize the unwound DNA until it can be used as a template for DNA replication (makes sure they don’t reconnect)

69
Q

gyrase (or topoisomerase)

A

corrects “over winding” ahead of replication forks by breaking, swiveling, and rejoining DNA strands

70
Q

how many DNA polymerase for each strand in replication?

A

one DNA polymerase for each strand

71
Q

DNA polymerase III

A

complex of proteins that catalyzes the addition nucleotides to generate new polynucleotide strands of DNA
- what is building the daughter strands

72
Q

can DNA polymerase build a strand on its own?

A

no, cannot initiate synthesis of polynucleotide from scratch

73
Q

RNA primase can build nucleotides from

A

nothing

74
Q

where does DNA polymerase III add nucleotides to?

A

the 3’ end of a preexisting strand

75
Q

what does RNA primase do?

A

adds priming sequence/RNA nucleotides one at a time at the replication fork, using parental DNA as a template to generate RNA primer (10-12 nucleotides
from that primer DNA polymerase is going to come in and add new nucleoties

76
Q

how does DNA polymerase synthesize a new strand?

A

the 3’ end of the RNA primer (10-12 nucleotides) serves as a starting point for DNA polymerase III –> the new strand is synthesized/extended from there

77
Q

RNA primer is generated by

A

RNA primase

78
Q

what happens to the RNA primer after DNA polymerase III synthesizes the new strand?

A

an enzyme called DNA polymerase I comes in and removes and replaces the RNA primer with DNA nucleotides

79
Q

what direction does DNA polymerase synthesize a new strand?

A

the new chain grows in the 5’ to 3’ direction (starts at 3’ of original strand so have to have 5’ on new strand)

80
Q

draw DNA replication steps

A
81
Q

what bond is created by the original strand and new strand with DNA polymerase III?

A

catalyzes formation of a phosphodiester bond between the free 3’ OH end and a 5’ phosphate group of the incoming nucleotide

82
Q

what is the problem created due to the anti-parallel structure of double helix?

A

there is a lagging strand
- *DNA added to lagging strand in discontinuous chunks called okazaki fragments

83
Q

what direction does DNA polymerase III work for the lagging strand?

A

works in the direction away from the replication fork (because that is where free 3’ hydroxyl end is located)

84
Q

how is the lagging strand synthesized?

A

as a series of short DNA segments called Okazaki fragments

85
Q

each Okazaki fragment on the lagging strand has its own ___ primer. ________ later removes the ___ primers and replaces them with ____

A

RNA primer, DNA polymerase, RNA primers and replaces them with DNA

86
Q

what does DNA ligase do in DNA replication?

A

joins the sugar-phosphate backbones (restores phosphodiester bonds) of all the Okazaki fragments together into a continuous DNA

87
Q

telomeres

A

end regions of chromosomes; multiple repetitive nucleotide sequences (TTAGGG) at the ends of eukaryotic chromosomes; DO NOT encode for anything

88
Q

telomeres are ______ caps at the ____ of chromosomes

A

protective, ends

89
Q

do telomeres contain genes?

A

no, they protect genes from being eroded through multiple rounds of DNA replication

90
Q

telomerase

A

keeps telomeres from being eroded
- every time cell divides, you lose some telomeres (lose as you age)

Intro to Biotech (10 decks)

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