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Intro Classes > Ch 2 Cell Cycle and Replication > Flashcards

Ch 2 Cell Cycle and Replication Flashcards

1
Q

zygote

A

fertilized egg

restores the dipoloid number of chromosomes from the haploid gametes

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2
Q

differentiation

A

the specrialization of cells

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3
Q

stem cells

A

undifferentiated cells

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4
Q

the cell cycle

A

the period of time it takes for a cell to complete one cell division

may last a few hours in certain continuously dividing cells; may last years in stable, terminally differentiated cells

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5
Q

phases of the cell cycle

A

gap phase 1 (G1)

synthesis phase (S)

gap phase 2 (G2)

mitosis phase (M)

Some cells enter G0 phase, a prolonged non-dividing phase

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6
Q

terminally differentiated cells

A

cells of mature tissues which have fully differentiated, some of which (such as the neurones of the nervous system) lose the ability to undergo mitosis

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7
Q

mitosis

A

cell division of somatic cells which results in two diploid daughter cells

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8
Q

phases of mitosis

A

prophase

prometaphase

metaphase

anaphase

telophase

followed by cytokinesis (a separate phase of somatic cell division which is not required, thus resulting in binucleate or multinucleate cells)

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9
Q

meiosis

A

division of germ cells to produce gametes

results in four haploid cells—four spermatogonia in males and one oogonium and three polar bodies in females

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10
Q

apoptosis

A

controlled cell death to remove unnecessary or potentially harmful cells which requires the expenditure of energy

a highly controlled and ordered mechanism that removes cells in a way that causes minimal disruption to the surrounding tissue

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11
Q

facultative dividers

A

cells that do not normally divide but retain the capacity to undergo mitosis should the need arise

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12
Q

M phase

A

mitotic phase; phase during which the cell undergoes mitosis

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13
Q

interphase

A

non-dividing phase during which most of the life cycle of the cell occupies

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14
Q

S phase

A

synthesis phase; a discrete period during interphase when nuclear DNA is replicated

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15
Q

three phases of interphase

A

first gap (G1 phase)

synthesis phase (S phase)

second gap (G2 phase)

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16
Q

G1 phase

A

first gap phase; between the end of the M phase and the beginning of the S phase

during this phase, cells differentiate and perform their specialized functions as part of the whole tissue

usually much longer than the other phases of the cell cycle

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17
Q

G2 phase

A

second gap phase; the interval between the end of the S phase and the beginning of the M phase

during this period, cells prepare for mitotic division

relatively short phase

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18
Q

G0 phase

A

state of continuous differentiated function designated which occurs in terminally differentiated cells that have left the cell cycle after the M phase

still retain the capacity to re-enter the cell cycle when suitably stimulated

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19
Q

binucleate cells

A

cells that are in a protracted G2 phase in which they perform their normal differentiated functions despite the presence of a duplicated complement of DNA

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20
Q

metaphase checkpoint

A

prevents progression to anaphase from metaphase before all the chromosomes are properly connected to the mitotic spindle and lined up at the cell equator

prevents unequal distribution of the chromosomes to the two daughter cells

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21
Q

somatic cells

A

all body cells except for the germ cells

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22
Q

cytokinesis

A

the division/cleavage of a post-mitosis cell into genetically identical daughter cells by cytoplasmic division

the plasma membrane around the spindle equator becomes indented to form a the cleavage furrow, which progressively constricts the cell until it is cleaved into two daughter cells

may, in some situations, result in the formation of two daughter cells with grossly unequal amounts of cytoplasm or cytoplasmic organelles

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23
Q

totipotent

A

able to differentiate into any other cell type

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24
Q

multipotent

A

able to produce cells of several lineages

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25
unipotent
producing only a single cell type
26
haematopoietic
an immature cell that can develop into all types of blood cells, including white blood cells, red blood cells, and platelets
27
genome
the same fixed complement of DNA contained within the nuclei of all somatic cells within an individual
28
chromosomes
the arrangement of DNA within cells, with each species having a set number humans have 46 chromosomes (22 homologous pairs and 2 sex chromosomes)
29
diploid number
the total number of chromosomes within cells (46 in humans), and often abbreviated as 2n ( n = number of chromosomes in a haploid cell)
30
autosome
any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome
31
sex chromosomes
two chromosomes, either XX in the female or XY in the male; differentiated from autosomes
32
sister chromatids
the identical chromosomes created during S phase, when each chromosome is duplicated remain attached to original chromosome twin at the centromere
33
centromere
the point at which sister chromatids attach to their identical counterpart
34
histone proteins
binds to DNA into chromosomes and holds the chromosomes in supercoiled and folded conformations replicated during S phase so that the sister chromatids will have their own complement of histones
35
kinetochore
a DNA and protein structure on each duplicated chromosome, located at the centromere, which provides attachment for the microtubules of the cell spindle to the centromeres during cell division and seems also to control the progression of mitosis
36
cell spindle
microtubules which attach to kinetochores during cell division
37
karyotyping
Examination of the chromosomes of dividing cells, which can give diagnostic information about the chromosomal complement of an individual or of a malignant tumour
38
mitotic apparatus
a spindle of longitudinally arranged microtubules extending between a pair of centrioles at each pole of the dividing cell and is required for cell division
39
prophase
the first stage of mitosis which begins the moment when the chromosomes (already duplicated during the preceding S phase) first become visible within the nucleus the chromosomes become increasingly condensed and shortened and the nucleolus disappears the microfilaments and microtubules of the cytoskeleton disaggregate into their protein subunits the centrosome has already divided during the preceding interphase and, in prophase, the two pairs of centrioles migrate towards opposite poles of the cell while simultaneously a spindle of microtubules is formed between them
40
interpolar microtubules
a spindle of microtubules that is formed between the two pairs of centrioles which migrate towards opposite poles of the cell during prophase
41
prometaphase
dissolution of the nuclear envelope marks the beginning of prometaphase the mitotic spindle then moves into the nuclear area and each duplicated chromosome becomes attached at the kinetochore to another group of microtubules of the mitotic spindle ther microtubules attach the chromosome arms to the spindle.
42
metaphase
begins after prometaphase, during which chromosomes are dragged to the plane of the spindle equator (metaphase plate) the kinetochores controls entry of the cell into anaphase so that the process of mitosis does not progress until all chromatid pairs are aligned at the cell equator (metaphase checkpoint); prevents the formation of daughter cells with unequal numbers of chromosomes.
43
metaphase/equatorial plate
the spindle equator that the chromosomes line up along during metaphase just before anaphase
44
anaphase
begins after the metaphase checkpoint and is marked by the splitting of the centromeres the mitotic spindle becomes lengthened by the action of the motor protein kinesin 5 on the interpolar microtubules meanwhile, astral microtubules shorten and the centrioles are thus pulled apart, drawing the chromatids of each duplicated chromosome to opposite ends of the cell should result in exact division of the duplicated genetic material and by the end of anaphase, two groups of identical chromosomes are clustered at opposite poles of the cell
45
astral microtubules
join the centrosome to the cell cortex (the area underlying the plasma membrane)
46
telophase
during this final phase of mitosis, the chromosomes begin to uncoil and to regain their interphase conformation the nuclear envelope reassembles and nucleoli again become apparent
47
cleavage furrow
a circumferential furrow around the cell that progressively constricts the cell until it is cleaved into two daughter cells, resulting in cytokinesis
48
cytogenetic abnormalities
structural and numerical chromosomal abnormalities
49
nondisjunction
failure of the homologous chromosome pairs to separate during the first meiotic division, can result in trisomies
50
anaphase lag
failure of the two sister chromatids to separate during the second meiotic division, may result in trisomies
51
trisomy
having three of one type of chromosome E.g. trisomy 21 (Down syndrom), trisomy 18 (Edward syndrome), trisomy 13 (Patau syndrome)
52
gametes
haploid reproductive cells
53
gametogenesis
another name for meiotic cell division
54
haploid number
having one chromosome from each homologous pair (23 in humans) often abbreviated n
55
crossing over
mixes up the paternally and maternally derived alleles (alternative forms of the same gene) by "crossing over" of the chromatids the haploid gamete ends up with only one of each chromosome pair, but each individual chromosome includes alleles from each parent occurs in meiosis only
56
meiotic S phase
the chromosomes are duplicated as in the mitotic S phase, and this step is required for meiosis to proceed
57
chiasma formation
the mechanism of crossing over of the chromatids
58
meiotic prophase I
occurs after meiotic S phase and it is when crossing over occurs during meiosis
59
meiotic metaphase I
the first metaphase during meiosis, which occurs very similarly to mitotic metaphase (chromosomes line up on the metaphase plate)
60
meiotic anaphase I
the first anaphase during meiosis, which occurs very similarly to mitotic anaphase except that the homologous pairs of chromosomes split (instead of the chromatids)
61
meiotic metaphase II
the second meiotic division involves splitting of the chromatids by pulling apart the centromeres
62
meiotic anaphase II
stage of meiosis where the chromatids migrate to opposite poles of the spindle
63
spermatozoon
the mature form of the four haploid gametes after they undergo morphological development in males
64
ovum
the gamete, which had gained almost all the cytoplasm from the mother cell d/t unequal distribution of the cytoplasm, after it matures further
65
polar bodies
the gametes, which had gained almost none of the cytoplasm from the mother cell d/t unequal distribution of the cytoplasm, after they further degenerate
66
spermatogonia
the primitive germ cells of the male, which are present only in small numbers in the male gonads before sexual maturity after sexual maturity, spermatogonia multiply continuously by mitosis to provide a supply of cells which then undergo meiosis to form male gametes
67
oogonia
the germ cells of the female, which multiply by mitosis only during early fetal development, thereby producing a fixed complement of cells with the potential to undergo gametogenesis
68
mitochondria fate during reproduction
because the spermatozoa shed their mitochondria at the time of fertilisation, only maternal mitochondrial genes are passed on to the offspring
69
necrosis
a mode of cell and tissue death that occurs only in pathological conditions; characterised by the inability of cells to produce the energy (ATP) required to maintain homeostasis. E.g. myocardial infarction
70
caspase cascade
the activated enzymes of this mechanism cleave cellular proteins, such as the lamins of the nucleus, and activate additional enzymes, such as DNAase, to cleave DNA.
71
clonal deletion
the process when developing T lymphocytes which are capable of reacting to normal body components become triggered to self-destruct in the thymus
72
corpus albicans
a fibrotic scar which occurs when the ovum is not fertilized, so the corpus luteum involutes (a process that involves progressive death of its constituent cells)
73
caspases
a set of enzymes found in the inactive form in all cells, and when it is activated, by cleaving off a short peptide sequence, it is then able to activate the next enzyme in the series and so on, leading to a caspase cascade (amplification effect)
74
enzyme cascade
when the first enzyme in a series is activated, it is then able to activate the next enzyme in the series, which in turn activate other enzymes greatly amplifies reactions
75
coagulation cascade
an example of an enzyme cascade; the blood clotting mechanism
76
karyorrhexis
the breaking of nuclear material into fragments during apoptosis
77
karyolysis
the break-up of the entire cell into membrane-bound frangments during apoptosis
78
apoptotic bodies
cell fragments that contain nuclear material after karyolysis may be phagocytosed by adjacent cells or by tissue macrophages
79
abnormal mitotic figures
a visually obvious example of the many genetic abnormalities that are found in cancer cells which are not seen in normal tissue (can be a feature of premalignant conditions as well)

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