Ch. 25-29 Flashcards
(173 cards)
1
Q
Established during World War II, the Office of Price Administration (OPA) focused on what form of regulation?
A
The OPA regulated almost every product used by civilians, from rubber to meat to gasoline. In addition to rationing, the OPA set maximum prices on both commodities and finished products.
2
Q
How was WWII financed?
A
For the first time, an income tax was imposed on almost every working American (previous income taxes had been levied only on high-income earners). In addition, a massive war bond effort was launched, aimed at everyone from retirees to children, who were encouraged to buy “war stamps” available for as little as a dime.
3
Q
Black Americans faced continued segregation and discrimination at home and abroad during World War II, including serving in segregated military units. In response, civil rights leaders voiced support for the “Double V.” What were the two Vs?
A
The first V stood for victory over America’s enemies, and the second V represented a victory for equality on the home front.
4
Q
What was the Second Great Migration?
A
The Second Great Migration describes the migration of some 1.5 million blacks to Northern urban areas during World War II. Limited to low-wage, low-skill jobs in the South, the factory jobs in the North, Midwest, and West during the war offered blacks an opportunity to learn high-skill positions at a good salary.
By the end of World War II almost half of all blacks would live outside of the South.
5
Q
Explain the effect the “braceros” had on the USA during World War II.
A
During World War II, farms in the western United States faced a severe labor shortage. In 1942, an agreement with Mexico allowed Mexican farmers, known as braceros, to enter the United States to work on American farms, without complying with formal immigration requirements.
The large numbers of Mexicans in the American Southwest sparked racist backlash against them, in events known as the Zoot Suit riots.
6
Q
Some 25,000 Indians served in the armed forces during World War II, the most famous of which were the Navajo Code Talkers. Why were the Code Talkers so significant to American military efforts in the Pacific?
A
Since few non-Navajos spoke the Navajo language, the Navajo Code Talkers could communicate to each other rapidly, in what was essentially an unbreakable code, without the need for complex cryptography.
The efforts of the Navajo Code Talkers contributed to U.S. victory in several battles in the Pacific, including Iwo Jima.
7
Q
Who were the WACs and WAVES?
A
During the Second World War, the WACs (Women’s Army Corps) and the WAVES (Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service) were Army and Navy units, respectively, that were filled with women. Some 200,000 women served during the War in jobs such as air traffic controllers, camp hostesses, clerical work, and nursing, freeing men for combat duty.
8
Q
Who did Rosie the Riveter symbolize?
A
Rosie the Riveter symbolized the 20 million women who were in the workforce by 1944. These “Rosies” served in clerical jobs and in factories building planes and tanks. Motivated by the claim that each woman in the workforce freed a man for the front lines, many women found the experience of a job outside the home to be liberating.
9
Q
It took almost a year for the United States to mobilize fully for war, but in November 1942 a joint Anglo-American force launched Operation Torch. Where did the joint force strike?
A
During Operation Torch, British and American forces landed in North Africa (controlled by the Nazi-allied Vichy France government). Over the next six months, Allied forces drove German and Italian troops from the entirety of North Africa.
10
Q
In 1942, the United States achieved two naval victories which proved crucial to victory against Japan. What were they?
A
The Battle of the Coral Sea & Battle of the Midway
During the Battle of the Coral Sea, the U.S. Navy sunk one Japanese aircraft carrier and heavily damaged another, forcing a Japanese invasion fleet headed for Australia to turn back.
Two months later, in a resounding U.S. victory during the Battle of Midway, American forces sunk four Japanese carriers. After its losses at Midway, the Japanese were unable to keep pace with American shipbuilding and pilot training.
11
Q
After the conquest of North Africa concluded in May 1943, where did the Allies launch their next attacks?
A
The Anglo-American forces next conquered Sicily, then proceeded to attack Italy. During the summer of 1943, Mussolini was deposed (although he was rescued soon thereafter by the Nazis), and the joint force continued to drive up the Italian Peninsula. German forces continued fighting in Northern Italy until the end of the war.
12
Q
In early 1944, British and American leaders prepared to launch the largest amphibious operation in world history to be known as the D-Day landings. Taking place in June 1944, where did the landings take place?
A
The D-Day landings took place in Normandy, on the coast of France. By December, almost all of France was freed from German forces, and British, Free-French, and American forces were preparing to drive deep into Germany.
13
Q
What General was placed in charge of the Supreme Headquarters, Allied Expeditionary Force?
A
General Dwight D. Eisenhower
Eisenhower’s Supreme Headquarters coordinated military strategy and kept quite a few egos in check, including those of George Patton and Bernard Montgomery, two brilliant generals who were in constant competition.
14
Q
On May 8, 1945, the German armed forces formally surrendered to the Allied forces, ending World War II in Europe. What was the location of the Allied forces at the end of the War?
A
By May 8th, Soviet forces had conquered much of Eastern Europe, including Poland, Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, and most of Eastern Germany. The Western Allied forces had liberated France, the Netherlands, Italy, and Western Germany.
15
Q
How did President Roosevelt respond to military and civilian concerns that Japanese-Americans on the West Coast could be spying for Japan?
A
In 1942, President Roosevelt ordered all Japanese along the West Coast to be detained at internment camps for the duration of the War, an action upheld by the Supreme Court in Korematsu v. United States (1944).
In all, some 20,000 Japanese-American soldiers served in the American military, earning 21 Medals of Honor, and proving integral in the American victory over the Axis Powers.
16
Q
Complete the sentence:
In the Pacific Theater of WWII, General Douglas MacArthur used a strategy known as _____ _____, which bypassed heavily defended Japanese positions and attacked weaker ones.
A
island hopping
By taking less heavily held islands, such as Saipan, the United States forces gradually moved into position to launch an attack on Japan itself. Islands strongly fortified by the Japanese were blockaded and cut off. Left to wither on the vine, several Japanese contingents turned to cannibalism.
17
Q
Passed in 1943, what did the Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Law empower the President to do?
A
The Smith-Connally Anti-Strike Law allowed the President to take over any war-related business threatened by a strike.
Although labor unions and corporations had agreed after Pearl Harbor not to strike during the War’s duration, workers were angered that corporations made huge profits while their own wages were frozen. The Anti-Strike law was passed in reaction to John L. Lewis’s call for strikes in the militarily essential coal mines.
18
Q
Smith v. Allwright (1944) was one of the first post-Reconstruction Supreme Court cases to address civil rights. What did the Court hold?
A
Lonnie E. Smith, a black voter in Texas, challenged the Texas Democrats’ policy of holding white-only primaries, contending the policy violated his civil rights.
The Supreme Court agreed, and mandated that primaries be open to voters of all races. The decision presaged Brown v. Board of Education (1955), the decision which would strike down the “separate but equal” doctrine.
19
Q
Explain who the G.I. bill helped.
A
The G.I. Bill provided a range of benefits for returning World War II veterans (commonly referred to as G.I.s). Benefits included low-cost mortgages, loans to start a business or farm, and tuition aid to attend a vocational school, high school, or college.
1.2 million Black veterans, who had served during World War II in segregated ranks, were denied the benefits of the GI Bill because they were Black. This meant what while White veterans were able to come home and build wealth during the coming post-war economic boom, Black veterans and their families were shut out.
20
Q
In October 1944, U.S. and Japanese naval forces fought the Battle of Leyte Gulf. What was its result?
A
During the Battle of Leyte Gulf, the United States annihilated Japanese naval forces, ending the Japanese Navy as a fighting force and ensuring that the USA would be able to re-conquer the Philippines from the Japanese.
The Battle of Leyte Gulf was the largest naval battle in history, with over 279 major ships participating in the battle.
21
Q
Who were the kamikazes?
A
Kamikazes were Japanese suicide pilots who, after minimal training, flew their planes directly into American ships or naval vessels.
Kamikaze is a Japanese word meaning “Divine Wind.”
22
Q
Complete the sentence:
Between February 19 and March 15, 1945, American forces took the island of _____ _____ in one of World War II’s fiercest battles.
A
Iwo Jima
Iwo Jima had been a Japanese territory before the War and was the first piece of Japanese territory to fall to Allied forces. Some 27,000 American casualties resulted from the attack. Joe Rosenthal’s Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima may be the most reproduced historical photograph of all time.
23
Q
What was the final major island to be conquered as part of the War in the Pacific during WWII?
A
Okinawa
Only 340 miles from Japan, the American military attack on Okinawa was integral to providing an American air base for the eventual attack on Japan itself.
Constant kamikaze attacks and fierce resistance led to at least 65,000 Allied casualties and 100,000 Japanese casualties.
24
Q
Shortly before the end of World War II, in February of 1945, the Big Three met at Yalta, in the Soviet Union. What agreement did Stalin, Churchill, and Roosevelt reach?
A
In addition to resolving questions of war strategy, the Big Three agreed that Germany would be divided into occupied zones, and that they would support the establishment of the United Nations. The Soviets also agreed to hold free elections in Eastern Europe.
It was President Roosevelt’s last major Presidential act; he died in April 1945 and was succeeded by President Truman.
25
What was the Manhattan Project?
The Manhattan Project, under physicist J. Robert Oppenheimer, was a U.S. effort to develop atomic weapons. The first nuclear device was detonated in the New Mexico desert in July 1945.
26
In April 1945, while World War II was still going, 50 nations met in San Francisco to draft the charter of what international organization?
The United Nations
In October of the same year, the Senate approved America’s involvement in the organization.
Today, the permanent members of the United Nations Security Council are the same countries that led the fight against the Axis Powers; the United States, the Soviet Union, France, Great Britain, and China.
27
In July and August of 1945, representatives from the Soviet Union, the United States, and Great Britain divided up Germany into zones of occupation at the _____ _____.
Potsdam Conference
The British, French, Americans, and Soviets each agreed to occupy roughly a quarter of Germany. In addition, the parties divided Berlin (which lay within the Soviet Zone) into four quarters, each assigned to one of the four powers.
28
Define:
Baby Boom
Between 1946 and approximately 1957, the United States experienced a massive growth in population, which historians and demographers term the Baby Boom.
Between 1948 and 1953 more babies were born than in the previous 30 years combined.
29
Explain what racial covenants are.
Community laws that governed how suburban communities would be planned had racial covenants, which basically said that non-white people could not live there. A covenant is a promise, so it’s just basically a promise amongst the racist White people that people of color could not live there.
Racial Covenants were widespread in the United States, in the North and the South, and many are still found in community laws today. However, that discrimination has been illegal since 1967.
30
Explain what the Federal Housing Administration did.
Created during the Great Depression, the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) helped White people buy homes during the Great Depression by insuring their mortgages (loans) with the bank.
In addition, by promising to pay for the loan if the White person could not make the payments, it made it much easier for banks to offer cheap, low-interest loans to White people, which they did throughout the 1930s, 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s. It’s estimated that 400 billion dollars (in today’s dollars) went to help Americans finance their homes, with 98% of all funds going to White Americans.
31
How did the Federal Housing Administration before 1967, increase the wealth gap between White and non-White peoples?
When the Great Depression ended and the post-war economic boom began, White peoples were in a great position to benefit economically, since the homes they purchased with the help of the Federal Housing Administration grew in value during the post-war economic boom.
In 1967, the Federal Housing Administration was forced to comply with the Fair Housing Act, making it illegal to discriminate based on race. Almost 35 years of racial discrimination in housing had taken place, intentionally helping Whites only, leaving out non-White peoples, before it was made illegal by the government.
32
Who benefitted the most from the post-war economic boom during the 1940s, and 1950s?
White people benefitted the most. During this time, they were receiving financial help from the government to purchase homes and go to college.
As a result, they were well positioned to buy homes, which built wealth, as well as earning advanced degrees, which enabled them with more career opportunities, which also built wealth.
33
What was Levittown?
Levittown was one of the largest suburban planned communities of the 1940s and 1950s. This planned community, filled with houses and community centers, were places where non-White people were not allowed to live.
34
Define:
Conservative Coalition
The Conservative Coalition was an alliance of Southern racist Democrats and Republicans that dominated Congress in the 1940s and 1950s.
The Conservative Coalition was able to block most of President Truman’s economic and civil rights legislation.
35
Throughout his administration, President Truman proposed numerous measures that continued the spirit of the New Deal, such as the Employment Act of 1946. What was the fate of most of Truman’s domestic proposals?
Most of President Truman’s domestic proposals were blocked in Congress by a combination of Republicans and Southern Democrats.
As an example, Truman requested that Congress draft legislation to provide national health insurance, a raise in the minimum wage, and a national commitment to full employment. Congress responded by providing the President with a Council of Economic Advisors.
36
In 1946, Congress eliminated the Office of Price Administration, which had been responsible for setting the prices on hundreds of goods. What was the result of this action?
During the Second World War, prices had been held at an artificial low. Once the check on prices was removed, inflation resulted and over the next year, prices rose 25%.
37
During his administration, President Truman desegregated the armed forces and the federal government, strengthened the Justice Division’s Civil Rights department, and created a Committee on Civil Rights. Yet President Truman failed to have any proposed civil rights legislation passed. Why?
Faced with strong opposition from Southern Democrats, however, any civil rights legislation would have died in Congress. Truman did propose the Fair Employment Practices Commission, which failed to pass.
38
In an agreement with the United States, Stalin and the Soviet Union were to allow free elections in the Eastern European countries they occupied by 1946. What were the results of these elections?
The countries of Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Albania, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia all backed Soviet candidates, although the elections were not open and honest.
The Soviet’s failure to allow open and honest elections strained relations with the United States.
39
In a speech decrying the elections of 1946, which placed the countries of Eastern Europe under Communist control, what term did Winston Churchill employ to describe the division between East and West?
Churchill used the term “Iron Curtain.”
The term came to symbolize the sharp division between the democratic nations of Western Europe and the nations of Eastern Europe, which were under Soviet control. During the 1950s, border defenses such as the Berlin Wall divided the two sides of the Curtain.
40
Who were the Dixiecrats?
The Dixiecrats were made up of states’ rights Southern Democrats, who opposed President Truman’s support for civil rights. The Dixiecrats ran Strom Thurmond for President.
The Dixiecrats weren’t the only Democrats to offer opposition to President Truman. Liberal Democrats who thought that Truman’s aggressive foreign policy threatened world peace formed a short-lived Progressive Party in 1948.
Even though his party was divided, Truman won the election, winning his first Presidential election.
41
In his 1949 State of the Union Address, President Truman outlined his domestic policy, termed the “Fair Deal.” What did Truman propose?
Truman proposed civil rights legislation, an increase in public housing, federal education, an increase in the minimum wage, aid for farmers, and national health insurance.
With the exception of an increase in the minimum wage (from $0.40 to $0.70), all of Truman’s Fair Deal programs failed to get Congressional approval, blocked by the Conservative Coalition of Southern Democrats and Republicans.
42
During President Truman’s second term, U.S. foreign policy centered upon the doctrine of containment. What is containment?
Suggested by George Kennan in 1946, the U.S. foreign policy of containment centered on containing Communism to those countries where it existed, and halting its further spread.
Containment led to the creation of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and to U.S. involvement in the Korean and Vietnam Wars.
43
How did the pre-World War II appeasement of Adolf Hitler influence the policy of containment?
After the Second World War, many in the foreign policy establishment felt that the failure of Britain and France to check Hitler’s expansionist policies between 1936-1939 had directly led to the War, and criticized the policy of appeasement.
In contradiction, American foreign policy leaders adopted the policy of containment after the War, which called for challenging any expansionist tendencies on the part of the Soviet Union.
44
Complete the sentence:
In 1947, Congress passed the _____ _____ _____, which streamlined the U.S. military by combining the Army Department with the Navy Department into one Department of Defense.
National Security Act
Congress established the United States Air Force as a separate branch of the armed services and placed it under the control of the Department of Defense. In addition, the National Security Act established the Central Intelligence Agency and the National Security Council to coordinate foreign policy.
45
What was the Loyalty Review Board?
As part of the Red Scare, in 1947, President Truman authorized the creation of the Loyalty Review Board. The Board looked into the background of three million government employees to determine whether or not they held Communist sympathies and were therefore security risks. Only 300 government employees were dismissed.
As part of the investigation, the Attorney General’s List of Subversive Organizations was established. This secret list (which included the Communist and Nazi Parties and the Ku Klux Klan) would prove instrumental in the rise of McCarthyism during the height of the Red Scare.
46
The acronym HUAC stands for what governmental agency, especially active during the Red Scare of the post-World War II era?
House of Un-American Activities Committee
The Committee investigated real and suspected communists in positions of influence in American society, including Hollywood where a number of actors, directors, and producers were suspected communists.
In 1948, HUAC also investigated allegations of spying against Alger Hiss, a high-ranking State Department official.
47
Complete the sentence:
In early 1947, President Truman announced that the United States would provide aid to _____, where pro-Western forces were involved in a civil war with Communist troops.
Greece
Truman announced the aid with the statement that “[t]he policy of the United States is to support free people who are resisting subjugation by armed minorities or by outright pressure.” U.S. involvement in Greece was justified under the policy of containment since Communism was not already established in Greece. U.S. aid was also given to Greece’s longtime rival Turkey, in an effort to appear neutral. Truman’s decision is widely recognized as the start of the Cold War.
48
What was the Marshall Plan?
Beginning in 1948, the U.S. provided $13 billion in economic aid to rebuild Europe after the devastation of World War II. Aid was available to all European countries, but was rejected by the Soviet Union and the Communist states of Eastern Europe.
The Marshall Plan didn’t only repair damage, but also aimed to modernize European industrial and business facilities. In addition, as part of the policy of containment, the Marshall Plan allowed the pro-democracy governments of France and Italy to provide an alternative to Communism.
49
What was the economic result of the Marshall Plan?
The Marshall Plan was a resounding success. By 1951, those European countries involved in the Plan saw their economies grow at a rate 35% higher than in 1938.
The Marshall Plan also proved advantageous to both the United States and Canada. As the only Western economies not destroyed by war, most Marshall Plan purchases came from these two countries.
50
How did President Truman view post-World War II Germany’s role in the European economy?
President Truman and most U.S. foreign policy experts viewed an improved German economy as integral to Europe’s recovery. As such, Marshall Plan aid was provided to Germany for the rebuilding and retooling of German factories.
51
How did President Truman and the Western powers respond to Stalin’s 1948 closure of road and rail traffic to their enclaves in Berlin, also called the Blockade of Berlin?
With the assistance of the British and French air forces, Truman launched an airlift into Berlin to keep the city supplied.
The Berlin Airlift was a success, and Stalin reopened access to the city in May 1949.
52
In 1949, in partial response to the Berlin Airlift, the United States, Canada, Great Britain, France, and several other European nations created a mutual defense organization, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). How did the Soviets respond?
The Soviets created their own alliance with the Eastern European Communist states; the Warsaw Pact. The formation of NATO and the Warsaw Pact formalized the Cold War, which would last until 1991. Several former Warsaw Pact countries are now members of NATO.
53
Define:
Cold War
The Cold War, often dated from 1945–1991, was a longstanding state of political and military tension between the Soviet Union and its allies and the West, primarily the United States and the NATO nations.
Neither sides’ allies were limited to the Western world, as both sides had defense arrangements with countries in Africa and Asia as well. The era was defined by near-constant warfare in the Global South
54
In 1949, the Soviets escalated the Cold War by detonating their first atomic bomb. How did President Truman respond?
Truman countered the Soviet threat by giving approval for the development of the hydrogen bomb, 450 times more powerful than the bomb dropped at Nagasaki.
Competition between the U.S.S.R. and the United States had escalated into an arms race, which would continue virtually unabated until the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991.
55
After the end of the Second World War, who set up democracy in Japan?
General Douglas MacArthur
MacArthur set up a parliamentary democracy, but retained the Japanese Emperor as a figurehead. In addition, the Japanese constitution barred Japan from participation in anything but a defensive war. Japan would by necessity rely on the United States for protection.
56
As promised in the Tydings-McDuffie Act (1934), what country received independence from the United States on July 4, 1946?
The Philippines
The Tydings-McDuffie Act had promised independence within ten years, but the Second World War intervened. Although the Philippines was now an independent nation, as with Japan, the United States retained significant bases in the country and guaranteed its liberty.
57
Who was General Chiang Kai-Shek?
Chiang Kai-Shek was the leader of the Chinese Republican forces. At the end of the Second World War, a civil war between the Republican forces and the Communist forces, led by Chairman Mao Tse-Tung, resumed. In 1949, Chiang Kai-Shek was defeated and fled to Taiwan, establishing a separate government there. Communist Chinese forces took over Mainland China.
58
How did the U.S. and the Soviet Union administer the Korean Peninsula at the end of the Second World War?
After the end of the Second World War, the Korean Peninsula had been divided at the 38th Parallel, with the Soviet Union occupying the northern portion, and the United States occupying the southern one.
Elections to establish a permanent government were to take place in 1948, but never happened. Instead, the North formed a Communist government under Kim Il-sung, and the South formed a democratic government, under Syngman Rhee.
59
How did the Korean War begin?
After advising both Joseph Stalin and Chairman Mao of his plans, North Korean leader Kim Il-sung crossed the 38th Parallel on June 25, 1950.
By June 28th, the North Korean Army had captured Seoul, the South Korean capital, and the South Korean Army was in headlong retreat.
60
How did President Truman react to the North Korean invasion of South Korea in 1950?
Instead of requesting a declaration of war from Congress, Truman worked through the United Nations Security Council. The Soviet Union was boycotting the Council (because the Council had refused to recognize Communist China), and on June 27, 1950, the United States secured a Security Council resolution allowing armed intervention.
In addition to the United States, Australia, Great Britain, Turkey, Canada, France, Greece, Colombia, Thailand, Ethiopia, and other nations contributed troops.
61
Who led the combined United Nations Command (the anti-Communist forces) during the early years of the Korean War?
General Douglas MacArthur
MacArthur’s plan called for the stabilization of the rapidly disintegrated Korean front, which by the end of June 1950 held only a small portion of South Korea.
Having done so, MacArthur directed a successful naval landing behind North Korean lines at Inchon in September 1950. Seoul was recaptured, and the North Korean Army fled north.
62
Why did President Truman remove Douglas MacArthur from command of the American and United Nations forces during the Korean War?
As United Nations forces pushed north, they approached the Korean-Chinese border, and the Chinese intervened in 1950, sending the United Nations forces retreating southward. To avoid angering the Chinese and provoking a Third World War, Truman barred U.S. planes from attacking Chinese forces in China.
MacArthur publicly denounced the decision and criticized the President. Determining that MacArthur had been insubordinate, Truman relieved him of command and replaced him with General Matthew Ridgeway.
63
In July 1951, the Korean War stabilized along a front at the 38th Parallel, where it had begun more than two years before. Although small-scale battles continued until an uneasy peace was established in 1953, no large offensives took place. Why?
Although Douglas MacArthur had advocated for full and total victory, Truman was dedicated to a limited war, to avoid provoking the Soviet Union and a resulting outbreak of war in Europe.
Truman’s Korean actions were part of the larger foreign policy plans of containment, with Communism having been contained to North Korea.
64
Define:
Red Scare
The Red Scare was a period of anti-Communist hysteria which followed World War II, and was similar to the anti-Communist fervor which followed World War I. The hysteria was exacerbated by Communist victories in Eastern Europe and China, the Korean War, and by Joseph McCarthy, who declared that 205 Communists were working in the State Department.
65
What activities became regulated under the McCarran Internal Security Act (1950)?
Passed by Congress over President Truman’s veto during the Red Scare, the McCarran Internal Security Act:
Made it unlawful to advocate a totalitarian government.
Restricted travel for known Communists.
Gave the government permission to detain persons on suspicion of espionage.
Banned picketing a federal courthouse.
66
Who was Alger Hiss?
Hiss was a former State Department official. Whitaker Chambers, a prominent newspaper publisher, accused Hiss of being a Communist spy. Prosecuted by staunch anti-Communist Richard Nixon, Hiss was convicted of perjury in 1950.
Hiss had served as an assistant to President Roosevelt at the Yalta Conference.
67
What was the fate of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, who were accused of conspiracy to commit espionage for passing American atomic secrets to the Soviet Union?
The Rosenbergs were convicted and executed via the electric chair in 1953. Material provided to the Soviet Union may have hastened Soviet development of a nuclear warhead. The revelation that secret materials were passed on to the U.S.S.R. convinced many that Communist infiltrators were everywhere.
The Rosenbergs remain the only civilians executed for espionage in U.S. history.
68
What is McCarthyism?
McCarthyism is a term associated with Senator Joseph McCarthy, who in the early 1950s claimed that there were over 200 Communists in the State Department. McCarthy led a “witch hunt” for Communists, investigating the State Department, the Army, and Hollywood, among others.
McCarthy only rarely had evidentiary support for his accusations, and the term “McCarthyism” has come to mean a practice of making allegations via investigative techniques which are unfair, especially in order to restrict political opinions with which one does not agree.
69
In 1952, General Dwight Eisenhower ran for President against Governor Adlai Stevenson of Illinois, a Democrat. What campaign slogan did General Eisenhower’s supporters adopt?
Their slogan was “We Like Ike,” from Eisenhower’s nickname. Eisenhower’s simple campaign resonated with voters, in contrast to Stevenson’s intellectually driven effort, which earned him and his followers the sobriquet “Eggheads.”
70
What was General Eisenhower’s biggest campaign promise during the 1952 election?
Eisenhower promised to end the war in Korea.
The Korean War had devolved into a stalemate, with both sides at virtually the same position they had occupied before the war began. After his inauguration, Eisenhower kept his word and the Korean Peninsula was divided in two.
71
President Eisenhower’s Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, announced a strategy known as “brinkmanship” in the United States’ dealings with the Soviet Union. What did the brinkmanship strategy entail?
Under brinkmanship policy, the United States would push dangerous situations to the brink of war, with the intention of making the Soviet Union back down in matters of foreign policy.
Each side possessed nuclear weapons, so Eisenhower rarely let Dulles pursue matters to the true “brink.”
72
Complete the sentence:
During the Eisenhower Administration, military spending was dictated by the principle of _____ _____.
massive retaliation
Spending under massive retaliation focused primarily on nuclear weapons and air power (as opposed to more conventional weapons such as tanks), designed to destroy as much as possible in a limited amount of time.
73
Complete the sentence:
During a process known as _____, nations across the Global South fought for independence from Europe.
decolonization
One of the earliest nations to achieve independence was India in 1947, and Britain only rarely fought to keep her colonies. France was more reluctant to give up her colonies. A French force attempted to retake French Indochina (Laos, Cambodia, and Vietnam) and was defeated at Dien Bien Phu in Vietnam.
74
In 1954, the United States was a participant in the Geneva Conference, regarding the fate of what nation?
Vietnam
The Conference was called after the French were defeated by Vietnamese forces. Vietnam was divided in two, with the North under the control of Communist forces, and the South under the control of American allies.
Eisenhower provided the South Vietnamese government with $1 billion in aid. People in North Vietnam were not happy with this, since they believed in having a unified Vietnam. The leader who would be installed in South Vietnam would be greatly unpopular and viewed as a puppet of the U.S. Government.
75
To establish a protective containment barrier against communism, President Eisenhower’s Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, established what international organization modeled on NATO?
The South East Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO) was established in the Philippines in 1954, and was comprised of France, the United States, Pakistan, New Zealand, the Philippines, Thailand, and Australia.
76
Explain what happened during the 1954 Iranian Coup.
The Iranian government was overthrown after the CIA helped to arrest their Premier, Muhammad Mossadeq. He would die 3 years later under house arrest.
The US and British governments did this to make sure that a British company, British Petroleum, could retain access to the Iranian oil fields. By doing this, the United States and Britain were securing their oil supply while at the same time politically de-stabilizing the middle east to serve their own economic interests.
77
Explain what happened after the Iranian Coup in 1954.
After the coup was over, the United States installed a leader called Shah Muhammad Reza Pahlavi. Shah Muhammad would operate as a dictator of Iran, ruling for 25 years, and acting as a puppet of the US government.
78
Complete the sentence:
In 1954, the United Fruit Company asked President Eisenhower for assistance in protecting their assets in _____.
Guatemala
Eisenhower and the CIA were concerned that the country’s government would begin labor and land reform.They forced the democratically elected leader, Jacobo Arbenz, to leave the country. Arbenz fled to Mexico, where he would died in 1971.
After the American government forced Arbenz out of office, they installed Carlos Castillos Armas, who instituted a brutal military dictatorship, which lacking popular support, began to kidnapped and 'disappeared' anyone who spoke out against the the regime.
79
What did the Guatemalan Dictatorships do while in power?
Over the course of 36 years, military-style dictatorships killed 200,000 people, most of them of Maya descent. This event in world history is called the Guatemalan Genocide or the Maya Genocide. This genocide would not have been possible without the financial and military support of the US government.
80
After Egypt seized control of the Suez Canal, how did the British, French, and Israelis respond?
The combined British, French, and Israeli forces launched an attack and seized the Canal.
Eisenhower, who hadn’t been advised of the attack, was livid, refused to support the operation militarily or morally, and led the United Nations in condemning the action.
Eventually, under American pressure the combined forces withdrew.
81
What was the Eisenhower Doctrine?
Under the Eisenhower Doctrine, the United States vowed to aid any nation resisting communist forces with material and financial aid.
As an example, in 1954 Eisenhower dispatched 14,000 Marines to Lebanon to prevent a civil war from breaking out between communists and Western allied forces.
82
What was the American reaction to the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik I and Sputnik II, the first two space satellites, in 1957?
The American reaction can only be described as shock; American technical supremacy over the U.S.S.R. had always been presumed.
Further, the rockets which launched the satellites confirmed that the U.S.S.R. was not only ahead in satellite technology, but in rocket technology as well.
83
What Congressional action resulted from the Soviet Union’s launch of Sputnik I and II?
In response to the Soviet launch, Congress established the National Air and Space Agency (NASA), Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), and the National Defense and Education Act, which included massive funding for scientific research at the university level.
A space race, as a corollary to the arms race, was underway.
84
In 1958, Nikita Khrushchev repeated Stalin’s demand that the United States and the Western powers evacuate West Berlin. How did President Eisenhower lower tensions between the countries?
President Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to a meeting at Camp David, where the two men discussed the issue, and the Soviet demand was dropped.
A second meeting, scheduled for 1960 in Paris, was cancelled when a U.S. spy plane was shot down over Soviet territory.
85
Complete the sentence:
In 1959, Vice President Nixon and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev engaged in the _____ _____ about the merits of communism and capitalism.
Kitchen Debate
The debate between the two took place at an exhibition in Moscow, where the United States had shipped an entire “typical” American house. The house, modest by American standards, shocked and impressed Soviet visitors, and provided a much-needed boost after Sputnik. Nixon’s stature as a public statesman was raised as a result of the debate, which was televised in the United States.
86
Explain the Cuban Revolution
Led by Fidel Castro, the Communists deposed Fulgencio Batista, the U.S.-backed Dictator of Cuba. Eisenhower immediately gave the Central Intelligence Agency permission to begin training Cuban dissidents, who would participate in the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961.
One of the people who will be an important figure during the Cuban Revolution is Che Guevara, who had participated in the Guatemalan Civil War.
87
Beginning in 1956, the United States embarked upon the largest public construction project since the erection of the Great Pyramids. What was the project?
The Interstate Highway System, which has cost an estimated $456 billion to date and constructed some 47,182 miles of roads.
In honor of President Eisenhower, who signed the Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1956, the Interstate Highway System is officially known as the Dwight D. Eisenhower National System of Interstate and Defense Highways.
88
Complete the sentence:
Termed a “vast wasteland” by its critics, the ______ revolutionized popular culture during the 1950s.
television
With only three networks in 1957, viewing options were limited and Americans generally watched the same programming. Family events soon centered around popular shows such as I Love Lucy or My Three Sons (which prompted the invention of the TV dinner, so that families could watch and eat simultaneously).
89
What author published Atlas Shrugged in 1957?
Ayn Rand
Atlas Shrugged, in the words of critic Edward Younkins, presents “an apocalyptic vision of the last stages of conflict between two classes of humanity – the looters and the non-looters. The looters are proponents of high taxation, big labor, government ownership, government spending, government planning, regulation, and redistribution.”
90
What was the Beat Generation?
The term Beat Generation was used to describe the anti-materialistic literary movement that began in the late 1940s and stretched into the 1960s.
Writers such as Jack Kerouac and poets such as Allen Ginsberg existed in a world populated, in Ginsberg’s words, by “angel-headed hipsters burning for the ancient heavenly connection to the starry dynamo in the machinery of night.”
91
Who broke Major League Baseball’s color barrier in 1947?
Jackie Robinson
The game had been restricted to white players since the late 1800s. Robinson’s playing was magnificent despite racial prejudice, as he was named Rookie of the Year in 1948. Robinson’s spectacular on-field play and his refusal to fight with his adversaries earned him respect and struck a blow for Civil Rights.
92
How did the Cold War influence the struggle for civil rights in the 1950s?
During the 1950s, the United States sought to appeal to a number of emerging nations in Asia and Africa to offset communist influence. Part of this appeal was centered upon greater rights for minorities, as the Soviet Union commonly publicized civil rights abuses.
93
In 1954, the Supreme Court reached a unanimous decision in the landmark case of Brown v. Board of Education. What did this case hold?
Brown v. Board of Education held that the doctrine of “separate but equal” was unconstitutional, ending the doctrine first established in Plessy v. Ferguson (1896).
The case arose out of Topeka, Kansas’s separate schools for black children. The Court wrote “[w]e conclude that, in the field of public education, the doctrine of ‘separate but equal’ has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.”
94
After the Supreme Court ruled that “separate but equal” was unconstitutional in Brown v. Board of Education, several school districts refused to integrate. How did President Eisenhower respond?
When Arkansas Governor Orval Faubus used troops from the Arkansas National Guard to block nine black students from registering at Little Rock’s Central High, Eisenhower dispatched federal troops to force the school to integrate.
After a further standoff, in which the Little Rock schools closed for a year, desegregation was finally established.
95
Who was Rosa Parks?
In 1955, Rosa Parks, tired after a long day of work, refused to give up her seat in the colored section of a bus to a white passenger, after the white section had been filled.
Arrested upon arrival at her destination, Parks’s refusal prompted the Montgomery Bus Boycott.
96
Complete the sentence:
The 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott marked the emergence of _____ _____ _____ _____ as a civil rights leader.
Martin Luther King Jr.
King was instrumental in organizing a boycott of Montgomery, Alabama’s bus system in December 1955. The Boycott ended when a court ordered the public transportation system to be desegregated.
97
After the Montgomery Bus Boycott, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. organized what group to coordinate desegregation efforts throughout the South?
Dr. King organized the Southern Christian Leadership Conference, which coordinated civil rights efforts and directed non-violent protests throughout the South.
98
How did blacks and sympathetic whites protest the Woolworth Department Stores’ refusal to serve blacks at lunch counters in 1960?
They organized a sit-in, occupying counters reserved for whites, ordering coffee, and being refused service. The non-violent protests spread throughout the South.
On July 25, 1960, segregation at Woolworth’s Greensboro store ended; the first blacks served were Woolworth’s employees.
99
During the 1960 presidential election, John F. Kennedy’s religion troubled some potential voters. Why?
Kennedy was the first Roman Catholic candidate running for President from a major party. Although anti-Catholic sentiment had faded since the 1800s, Kennedy was still forced to publicly clarify that, as President, he would not take direction from the Pope.
100
Which innovation in campaigning debuted during the 1960 presidential elections, driven in part by the rise of television?
Televised debates
During the 1960 election, Vice President Richard Nixon and Senator John F. Kennedy held four televised debates, the first of which was watched by an estimated 70 million people.
During the first debate, Nixon (who had recently been in the hospital) looked tired and had refused makeup, while Kennedy looked tan and well-rested. Historians often attribute Kennedy’s election victory in a tight race to his appearance in the first debate.
101
Define:
Missile Gap
During the 1960 presidential election, Kennedy contended that the U.S. had significantly fewer missiles than the Soviet Union, a “Missile Gap” that he promised to remedy in the event he was elected.
102
What was Richard Nixon’s campaign strategy during the 1960 election?
Nixon played upon his foreign policy expertise, earned while he was a Senator and Vice President, and criticized Kennedy as being soft on communism.
Kennedy narrowly won the election (some think he won by fraud), by a mere 0.1% of the popular vote.
103
During his Inaugural Address, Kennedy said “Let the word go forth … that the torch has been passed to a new generation of Americans.” What did Kennedy mean?
Kennedy represented a new generation of leadership that had come of age during the Second World War. Kennedy viewed the future with optimism, and called for a New Frontier, with greater civil rights, healthcare reforms, and urban renewal.
Kennedy also promised that the United States would put a man on the moon by the end of the 60s.
104
In 1961, President Kennedy established the Peace Corps. What is its mission?
The mission of the Peace Corps is primarily related to fostering social and economic development in developing nations. The Corps provides technical assistance, instructs people in American culture, and helps Americans understand the culture of other countries.
Kennedy founded the Peace Corps to counter the “Ugly Yankee” impression that many citizens of developing nations had of the United States.
105
What was the Bay of Pigs Invasion?
In April 1961, Cuban dissidents, funded by the CIA, invaded Cuba in an operation approved by President Kennedy. The attack was a miserable failure, embarrassing President Kennedy.
106
Why did the East German government, at the direction of the Soviet Union, erect the Berlin Wall in November 1961?
The Berlin Wall was erected to prevent East Germans from escaping into West Germany, where economic opportunities and political liberties abounded. Kennedy responded by calling up military reserves and positioning tanks in crucial locations. Neither side called each other’s bluff, and tensions relaxed.
Kennedy would continue to show U.S. solidarity with the people of West Berlin in a speech in that city in 1963, when he said “Today, in the world of freedom, the proudest boast is ‘Ich Bin Ein Berliner’” (I am a Berliner).
107
What was the Cuban Missile Crisis?
In 1962, an Air Force U-2 discovered the Soviets preparing to place nuclear weapons in Cuba, 90 miles from the United States. Kennedy responded by placing a blockade around Cuba, and threatening war if any Soviet ship crossed the blockade line.
It was the closest the two superpowers came to nuclear war; Khrushchev backed down when Kennedy vowed not to invade Cuba.
108
Define:
Mutual assured destruction
Mutual assured destruction, or MAD, marked the end point if the Cold War turned “hot.” As a theory, MAD contended that both the U.S.S.R. and the U.S. would avoid nuclear confrontation because it would result in the destruction of both countries.
MAD required each nation to have enough nuclear weapons to survive a first strike in order to retaliate. In turn, this required a massive arms race.
109
Who was Cesar Chavez?
Chavez was a Latino civil rights activitist who founded the National Farm Workers of America in 1962. His work led to numerous improvements for poor farm workers, including collective bargaining rights.
110
In the spring of 1963, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. and the Southern Christian Leadership Conference sought to draw attention to segregation in which Southern city?
Birmingham, Alabama
The SCLC called for non-violent boycotts and protest marches. Birmingham’s police, led by “Bull” Connor, dispersed the marchers with firehoses.
The images of children being hit with water from hoses set at a level that would peel bark off trees shocked the North, as did the use of police dogs. The photos were given credit for shifting international support to the protesters.
111
Jailed for his part in the Birmingham Movement, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. wrote his Letter from Birmingham Jail in 1963. What did Dr. King’s letter state?
Dr. King cited the nonviolent nature of the protest, and contended that it was in the interest of all Americans, black and white, to grant civil rights. King wrote, “injustice anywhere is a threat to justice everywhere. We are caught in an inescapable network of mutuality, tied in a single garment of destiny. Whatever affects one directly, affects all indirectly…”
Dr. King was inspired by previous non-violent protest arguments from men such as Thoreau and Gandhi.
112
Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. gave his 1963 “I Have a Dream” speech during what event?
The March on Washington
Some 200,000 Americans converged on Washington, ostensibly in support of a civil rights bill pending in Congress, but also with a larger purpose in mind – raising both civil rights and economic issues to national attention.
The Civil Rights Bill of 1964, supported by President Kennedy before his death, was passed partly in response to the March.
113
What was the Warren Commission?
Chaired by Chief Justice Earl Warren, the Warren Commission investigated the death of President Kennedy in Dallas, in November 1963. The Commission concluded that Lee Harvey Oswald acted alone, but the lax investigative techniques employed have promoted skepticism of the Warren Report and the government.
114
Immediately after he became President, Lyndon Johnson convinced Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964, which had originally been proposed by President Kennedy. What did the Civil Rights Act establish?
The Civil Rights Act outlawed discrimination in hotels, motels, restaurants, theaters, and all other public accommodations engaged in interstate commerce based on race, color, religion, or national origin. It also prohibited state and municipal governments from denying access to public facilities on grounds of race, color, religion, or national origin.
115
In a measure originally suggested by President Kennedy, President Johnson signed into law a tax cut on high-income earners. What effect did this have on the economy?
Where the economy had been in a slight recession during the Kennedy years, the tax cut instituted a period of economic growth.
116
Who ran against President Johnson in the 1964 presidential election?
Barry Goldwater, Republican Senator from Arizona
Goldwater advocated an end to the welfare state, but Johnson painted Goldwater as irrational and untrustworthy.
Johnson won in a landslide; Goldwater carried only the states of the Deep South and Arizona.
117
What did Johnson nickname the set of domestic programs he championed?
Johnson’s programs were known as the Great Society, and were aimed at the elimination of poverty and racial injustice.
As part of the Great Society, Johnson declared a War on Poverty, greatly expanding social welfare programs at a high cost.
118
As part of his Great Society, President Johnson proposed Medicare and Medicaid. What did these new programs establish?
Medicare provided health insurance for those over age 65, and Medicaid provided health insurance for the poor.
119
Complete the sentence:
In 1968, President Johnson signed into law the _____ _____ Act, which banned racial discrimination in the sales and renting of homes and apartments.
Fair Housing
As part of his Great Society program, Johnson had vowed to combat racial injustice.
120
Which cabinet-level agency did President Johnson sign into law in 1965, to develop and execute policies on housing?
Housing and Urban Development (HUD), originally known as the House and Home Financing Agency.
HUD was responsible for building and administering government housing as part of President Johnson’s War on Poverty.
121
The Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 abolished the immigration quotas of the 1920s. What was the effect of the Act?
Over the next decade there would be a sharp upsurge of immigrants from Mexico and Central America. Further, hundreds of thousands of Vietnamese fleeing the war in Vietnam would use the opportunity to immigrate to the United States.
The Immigration and Nationality Act was one of a number of Great Society programs passed during President Johnson’s administration.
122
The publication of which book gave birth to the modern environmental movement?
Silent Spring, by Rachel Carson
Carson argued that DDT (a common insecticide) was causing adverse effects on the thickness of birds’ eggshells, which led to a ban on the product.
Critics have questioned Carson’s research methods, and the ban on DDT, which had been useful in the fight against yellow fever and malaria.
123
In response to a 1964 North Vietnamese attack on the USS Turner Joy and the USS Maddox, Congress passed which measure that allowed the President to conduct all necessary measures to ensure that South Vietnam survived?
The Tonkin Gulf Resolution
The Resolution allowed Johnson to vastly increase the scope of U.S. operations in Vietnam; from a few thousand troops in 1964 to 450,000 troops in 1967.
124
Who were the Việt Cộng?
The Việt Cộng were communist rebels from the government of America’s South Vietnamese allies. They were aided in their struggle by the North Vietnamese, Chinese, and Soviet Union.
125
During the Johnson Administration, what counter-insurgency tactic did the United States use against the Việt Cộng and the North Vietnamese?
The United States employed a strategy of “search and destroy.” With the assistance of helicopters, U.S. troops were airlifted into hostile territory, sought out the enemy, and destroyed them, before returning via helicopter to friendly territory.
126
What was the Tết Offensive (1968)?
During a Vietnamese holiday (the Lunar New Year) in January 1968, the Việt Cộng and North Vietnamese launched a massive attack, capturing Saigon, the South Vietnamese capital. Although U.S. forces were able to drive their adversaries back and deliver a victory, Walter Cronkite, the most trusted news reporter in America, declared that the war was lost.
127
In the context of the Vietnam War, what is the difference between “hawks” and “doves”?
Hawks were those who felt that the United States should carry out all measures necessary to achieve victory in Vietnam.
Doves felt that the War was unnecessary and unjustified, and suggested that the money spent fighting the War would be better used at home.
128
Where did most of the more intense protests against the Vietnam War take place?
College campuses were hotbeds of protests against the War. During the late 1960s, students held sit-ins against the War, struck from attending classes, burned their draft cards, and protested in Washington, D.C.
129
Why did Lyndon Johnson choose not to run for President in 1968?
Although he’d won in a landslide four short years before, Johnson faced widespread opposition for his handling of the Vietnam War. Anti-war dove Democrats and pro-war hawk Democrats bitterly divided the party, and it is doubtful whether Johnson could have won the nomination, let alone another presidential election.
130
In 1968, two political leaders were assassinated within only a few days of each other. Who were they?
Martin Luther King Jr. was killed outside a hotel room in Memphis, Tennessee by James Earl Ray, whose motive remains unclear.
In Los Angeles, where he was campaigning in the California presidential primary, Robert F. Kennedy was shot by Sirhan Sirhan, a Palestinian angered by Kennedy’s pro-Israel stance. During his campaign, Kennedy had sharply critiqued further involvement in Vietnam.
131
Who were the Chicago Seven?
During the 1968 Democratic Convention in Chicago, young anti-war Democrats rioted in the streets in protest of Johnson’s handling of the Vietnam War. Eight of the protesters were arrested, and seven were tried for conspiracy to incite a riot. All were found not guilty.
132
Although he had little chance of winning the popular vote, Alabama Governor George Wallace ran for President in 1968, hoping for what result?
Wallace hoped to deny both Nixon and Humphrey a majority in the Electoral College, and to throw the election to the House of Representatives, but his strategy failed. Wallace was a segregationist Democrat, and sharply opposed to the civil rights measures of the Johnson Administration.
133
Why did anti-war Democrats oppose Hubert H. Humphrey’s candidacy for President on the Democratic ticket?
As the incumbent Vice President, Humphrey was suspected of wanting to continue Johnson’s Vietnam War policies.
134
How did Republican nominee Richard Nixon address the Vietnam War, the preeminent campaign issue of the 1968 election?
Nixon called for “Peace with Honor,” and contended that he had a “secret plan” to end the war in Vietnam. Nixon never revealed the details of his plan, but won a resounding victory in the 1968 election, thanks in part to votes from Democrats and Republicans who’d had enough of protests, violence, and the permissiveness of the counterculture movement.
135
Describe:
Counterculture
In the 1960s, counterculture was identified with the rejection of convential societal norms including racial segregation, religious morality, condemnation of premarital intercourse, women’s rights, and materialism.
136
What requirement did the Supreme Court place upon arresting officers in Miranda v. Arizona (1966)?
In Miranda, the Court required police to read arrested persons their rights, such as the right to remain silent.
Miranda was freed, and was later found stabbed in an Arizona bar.
137
What was the Nation of Islam?
The Nation of Islam was a religious movement that preached black separatism, black nationalism, and self-improvement.
138
Under what circumstances did Malcolm X suggest violence would be appropriate?
Malcolm X contended that black violence was appropriate to counter white violence. A former member of the Nation of Islam who’d formed the Organization of African-American Unity, Malcolm Little was assassinated by followers of Elijah Muhammad in 1965.
139
Complete the sentence:
The _____ _____ advocated militant self rule for blacks, and were characterized by distinct all-black attire.
Black Panthers
The Panthers voiced slogans such as “Burn, baby, burn” and “Get Whitey,” but their violent rhetoric was tempered, in part, by their organized literacy and food campaigns for inner-city blacks.
140
The widespread availability of birth control and antibiotics to treat venereal disease led to what revolution?
the Sexual Revolution
Sex out of wedlock became more common, leading in turn towards an increased acceptance of homosexuality and abortion.
141
Complete the sentence:
The _____ _____ arose out of a police raid on a gay bar in 1968.
Stonewall Riots
During the 1960s, police raids on establishments suspected to be homosexual gathering places were common. When the police raided the Stonewall Inn, a bar in New York’s Greenwich Village, the situation quickly got out of hand, and residents organized activist groups to resist the police. The Stonewall Riots are considered the start of the organized Gay Pride movement.
142
Who published The Feminine Mystique in 1963?
Betty Friedan
Friedan surveyed a number of American housewives, and contended that women were not fulfilled by the “feminine mystique” – the idea that women were satisfied by a life as homemaker
143
What is second-wave feminism?
Second-wave feminism began in the 1960s with the publication of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique, and continued with the organization of the National Organization for Women. Second-wave feminists focused on women’s equality in the workplace, allowing women to attend all-male institutions such as West Point, and illegalizing gender discrimination. The second-wave feminists’ sole legislative loss was the failure to pass the Equal Rights Amendment.
First-wave feminism is the term for those who advocated for ending legal restrictions on women and the right to vote from the 1860s to 1920s.
144
What 1969 event gave rise to the American Indian Movement?
In 1969, 89 Indians and their supporters occupied the island of Alcatraz, a former prison in San Francisco Bay, requesting the island’s return to Indian control. Their activism brought renewed focus to the federal government’s relations with the Indian tribes; many tribes were granted increased sovereignty, and Indian cultural movements blossomed.
After nearly two years, the Alcatraz Island occupation collapsed, and the few remaining protesters were ejected by the government.
145
What was the Nixon Doctrine?
The Nixon Doctrine was announced during President Nixon’s speech to the nation about Vietnam in 1969, known as the Silent Majority Speech. Nixon told the country that while the United States would assist its allies in defending themselves, his doctrine meant that each nation was responsible for its own security.
During the speech, Nixon asked for the support of the silent majority, those Americans who did not participate in the counterculture, did not agitate in the protests against the Vietnam War, and did not actively engage in politics.
146
What was “Vietnamization”?
Vietnamization was Nixon’s strategy to achieve victory in Vietnam. The policy called for replacing American ground troops by training South Vietnamese forces supported by American money, air power, and war materials.
By his fourth year in office, Nixon had reduced American forces in Vietnam from 540,000 to 30,000.
147
Complete the sentence:
During his Presidency, Richard Nixon focused primarily on foreign policy efforts, and was assisted by his National Security Advisor _____ _____.
Henry Kissinger
A former Harvard professor, Kissinger later became Nixon’s Secretary of State. A master of foreign policy, he earned a Nobel Prize for his efforts at ending the war in Vietnam, achieved détente with China and the Soviet Union, and arranged for peace between Israel and Egypt after the 1973 Yom Kippur War.
148
In an effort to shore up South Vietnam as the United States cut troop levels, Nixon ordered U.S. troops to attack which ostensibly neutral country?
Cambodia
Bordering on South Vietnam, Cambodia was a poor country used by the North Vietnamese and the Việt Cộng as a supply route and to store arms and ammunition.
Secret bombings had been going on for years (outraging the country when they were uncovered), but Nixon made no secret of the invasion with U.S. ground troops, announcing it on live television.
149
Negotiations to end the Vietnam War, occurring primarily between Henry Kissinger and North Vietnamese diplomat Lê Ðức Thọ, took place in which city?
Paris, France
The negotiations had begun in 1968, but had gone nowhere for years. By October 1972 Kissinger and Thọ had worked out a compromise, and Kissinger declared that “peace was at hand.” The treaty broke down when it was opposed by the South Vietnamese, who hadn’t been consulted.
150
In October 1972, the treaty negotiated between Kissinger and Thọ to end the Vietnam War had broken down due to South Vietnamese opposition, and the North threatened to push for all-out victory. Nixon also faced widespread domestic oppostion to continuing the war.
Q: How did Nixon and Kissinger respond?
Nixon and Kissinger exerted strong diplomatic pressure against South Vietnam, guaranteeing U.S. support in the event the North resumed hostilities. South Vietnamese leaders reluctantly agreed to sign the Paris Peace Accords.
To keep North Vietnam at the bargaining table, the U.S. Air Force conducted a full-scale bombing campaign of the North’s military production facilities in the largest air campaign since World War II.
151
In 1971, Nixon shocked the world by announcing an official visit to Mainland China in February 1972. The U.S. had had no diplomatic contact with China since 1949, when it had fallen under Communist control. Why did Nixon go to China?
Nixon was engaged in an aggressive foreign policy maneuver. Although both China and the U.S.S.R. were Communist, they were also historic rivals. China sought an ally against the Soviet Union, and the Soviet Union in turn sought to placate the U.S., resulting in a visit from Nixon in May of 1972.
Desiring to foster good relations with the United States, both countries curtailed aid to the North Vietnamese, leading in part to that country’s acceptance of the Paris Peace Accords.
152
Define:
Détente
Détente is a French term referring to the easing of a strained relationship.
Détente with the Soviet Union occurred during the Nixon Administration, as the President and Henry Kissinger successfully negotiated several agreements with the U.S.S.R. to relieve tensions and forestall nuclear war.
At least in part, Nixon’s détente resulted from renewed relations between the U.S. and China (a traditional Russian rival, though both were Communist).
153
During the early 1970s, Nixon negotiated two arms control treaties with the Soviet Union. What were they?
The two treaties were:
1. Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT): froze the number of Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs).
2. Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty: ABMs were capable of destroying inbound missiles, and their use would have started a new arms race; both sides agreed not to further develop them.
154
Complete the sentence:
In 1971, President Nixon signed legislation establishing the _____ ______ Agency, whose purpose was to protect human health and the environment.
Environmental Protection
The EPA, under authority granted to it by the Congress, regulates water, air, and soil pollutants.
155
Although Nixon did not focus much attention on domestic policy during his administration, he did advocate for New Federalism. What was New Federalism?
New Federalism called for shifting much of the burden of the welfare programs onto the states. The federal government provided block grants to the individual states, who then administered those programs at the state level.
156
Beginning in 1970, the United States entered a period of low economic growth but rapidly increasing prices, which continued almost without interruption until the early 1980s.
What was this economic phenomenon called?
Stagflation
The term came from the combined low growth rate (stagnation) and increasing prices (inflation). Nixon announced a 90-day wage and price freeze to aid the economy.
In an attempt to alleviate the economic crisis, Nixon announced an end to the linkage between the U.S. dollar and a set amount of gold in the U.S. Treasury. Nixon’s announcment was known as “The Nixon Shock.”
157
Define:
Sun Belt
The Sun Belt is the region of the United States stretching from Southern California to Florida. Beginning in the 1960s, the Sunbelt saw a large population influx, driven by temperate weather, cheaper land, and lower taxes. Manufacturers also chose Sunbelt states, based on tax breaks and the availability of non-union labor.
Many of the new Sun Belt residents came from states such as Michigan and Ohio, which became known as the Rust Belt.
158
In 1972 George Wallace was once again competing for the Presidential nomination for the Democratic Party and was receiving high poll numbers, but he dropped out of the race. Why?
In Maryland, Wallace was the victim of a failed assassination attempt. Arthur Bremer, the shooter, hoped to become famous.
159
In 1972, the Democrats nominated George McGovern after a spirited primary. What two issues formed the heart of McGovern’s campaign?
McGovern:
- Called for an immediate withdrawal from Vietnam.
- Guaranteed incomes for the nation’s poor.
McGovern’s nomination by the Democratic Party marked a divorce from the hawk-Democrats who had triumphed in 1968, and the Party’s identification with the anti-war, counterculture movement.
160
From what type of voters did Richard Nixon draw much of his electoral strength during the 1972 campaign?
Nixon’s primary appeal was to his “Silent Majority,” older Americans who were encouraged by his success in drawing the Vietnam War to a close and concerned about the counterculture movement.
Nixon voters were typically older, including Sun Belt and suburban residents.
161
What were the results of the 1972 presidential election?
Richard Nixon won the largest Electoral College victory in American history, carrying every state but Massachusetts.
162
In 1973 Congress passed the War Powers Act, aimed at preventing another Vietnam War. What limits did the Act place on the President’s war powers?
The War Powers Act requires that the President notify Congress within 48 hours of committing armed forces to military action and forbids armed forces from remaining for more than 90 days without an authorization of the use of military force or a declaration of war by Congress.
163
In 1973, Israel, supported by an American airlift, turned back a surprise attack by Egypt and Syria, known as the Yom Kippur War. How did Oil Producing and Exporting Countries (OPEC) respond?
In October 1973, the OPEC member countries (most of whom were Arab states in the Middle East) announced an oil embargo, barring oil exports to the United States. Gas prices skyrocketed, the stock marketed crashed, and Nixon introduced gas rationing and price controls.
The embargo ended in May 1974, and although prices eased, the energy crisis continued through much of the 70s, leading to further inflation. High gas prices (averaging $0.63 in 1978) led to increased demand for fuel efficient cars, mainly produced in Japan.
164
In 1972, five men were discovered breaking into the Democratic National Committee Headquarters at the Watergate office complex in Washington, D.C. What was the purpose of the break-in?
The five men intended to bug the Democratic Headquarters, but were caught in the act. Within a few hours of the arrests, FBI investigators discovered that two of the men had the name and phone number of “E. Howard Hunt.”
Hunt worked for President Nixon, and the White House was quickly implicated in the break-in.
165
What organization funded the Watergate burglars?
The burglars were funded by the Committee to Re-elect the President (CREEP). Checks earmarked for the Nixon General Campaign fund were found in one of the burglars’ safe.
By October 1972, the FBI reported the break-in was only a part of a campaign of political spying and sabotage directed from within the White House and employing a group known as the “Plumbers.”
166
How did Richard Nixon react to the Watergate break-in?
Nixon directed his subordinates, including his White House Counsel, attorney John Dean, and his Chief of Staff H.R. Halderman, to organize a cover-up, which they attempted to do.
Although it is not known whether Nixon had prior knowledge of the break-in, given Nixon’s massive victory in the 1972 campaign, the break-in itself was patently unnecessary.
167
Who were Woodward and Bernstein?
Bob Woodward and Carl Bernstein were two Washington Post reporters who did much of the reporting on the Watergate scandal. They discovered that Watergate led to high officials in the White House, Justice Department, and FBI. Woodward and Bernstein used anonymous sources regularly, including one known as Deep Throat.
In 2005, Deep Throat was revealed to be Mark Felt, an Assistant Director at the FBI. Felt had been passed over for promotion to Acting Director by President Nixon.
168
Which branch of Congress established a select committee to investigate Watergate?
In February of 1973, a joint committee of Senators and Representatives began to conduct televised hearings. In July, a witness testified that the Oval Office contained a recording system.
Archibald Cox, who had been named to investigate Watergate, issued a subpoena to the President, demanding the tapes be turned over. Nixon refused, citing executive privilege.
169
What was the Saturday Night Massacre?
In October 1973, in response to Archibald Cox’s subpoena requesting that he turn over White House tapes, Nixon ordered his Attorney General Elliot Richardson to fire Cox. Richardson refused, as did his deputy. Nixon fired them and finally found someone in the Justice Department to fire Cox, Solicitor General Robert Bork.
The terminations were known as the Saturday Night Massacre, and infuriated Congress and the public. Bork quickly named a new Special Prosecutor.
170
Although President Nixon released redacted transcripts, he still refused to release the tapes themselves, citing executive privilege. The executive privilege claim came before the U.S. Supreme Court in United States v. Nixon in 1974. How did the Court decide?
The Court held, 8-0, that executive privilege did not apply, and that Nixon had to turn over the tapes. He complied, although a mysterious 18:30-minute gap of recorded material was missing.
The tapes were filled with profanity, ethnic slurs, and conversations about Watergate. The House now began to move forward with impeachment proceedings.
171
Vice President Gerald Ford succeeded President Nixon in August 1974. One of Ford’s first acts proved highly unpopular, and ruined any chances he possessed to run for President in his own right in 1976. What was the act?
Ford pardoned Nixon. The new President sought to move the country beyond Watergate and declared that “our long national nightmare is over.”
Although unpopular at the time, Ford’s actions are now widely praised. In 2001, Ford won the Kennedy Library Foundation’s Profile in Courage Award. “In pardoning Nixon,” said the Foundation, “Ford placed the love of his country ahead of his own political future and brought needed closure to the divisive Watergate affair.”
172
In early 1975 the North Vietnamese took advantage of Nixon’s resignation to launch an attack against South Vietnam. What city did the North capture on April 30?
Saigon
On April 30, Saigon, the Southern capital, surrendered, marking the end of the Vietnam War. Before the city’s fall, the U.S. conducted a massive airlift of American personnel, as well as South Vietnamese civilians.
An airlift operation, dubbed Operation Babylift, evacuated some 2,000 orphans, and Operation New Life flew 110,000 Vietnamese civilians to the Philippines. Many eventually emigrated to the United States.
173
In a speech, Gerald Ford announced his WIN campaign. What did WIN stand for?
Whip Inflation Now
Inflation continued to be a problem during Ford’s Presidency. The WIN campaign was a public and private campaign to halt rising prices, and included programs such as growing food gardens.
The program didn’t work. Economist Milton Friedman called it “unbelievably stupid.”
