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mcat biochem textbook > ch 5 > Flashcards

ch 5 Flashcards

1
Q

monosaccharide

A

a single carb molecule AKA a simple sugar

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2
Q

what is the formula for monosacc

A

CnH2nOn

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3
Q

examples of monosaccs

A

fructose, glucose, ribose

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4
Q

disaccharide

A

2 monosaccs bonded together

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5
Q

what is the bond between sugars called

A

glycosidic linkage

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6
Q

what are the the two types of glycosidic linkages and what puts then apart

A

An alpha-glycosidic bond is formed when both carbons have the same stereochemistry, whereas a beta-glycosidic bond occurs when the two carbons have different stereochemistry one looks like a U the other looks like a Z

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7
Q

examples of disacc

A

sucrose, lactose, maltose, and cellobiose

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8
Q

what are the simple sugars that make up sucrose and lactose

A

sucrose is made linking glucose and fructose while lactose is made from galactose and glucose

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9
Q

what are the simple sugars that make up maltose and cellobiose

A

maltose is made with glucose and glucose and cellobiose is made with two glucoses but different linkage compared to maltose

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10
Q

polysacc

A

multiple sugars bonded

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11
Q

what are the two main poly sacc’s and their use

A

they are glycogen and starch and they both are used as energy storage for animals and plants

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12
Q

what is delta g for hydrolysis

A

negative it is very favorable

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13
Q

what are enzymes called that hydrolyze sugars, examples?

A

they are named after the sugar they hydrolyze so lactase, and maltase

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14
Q

what is lactose malabsorption and lactose intolerance

A

malabsorption is people without lactase and intolerance is if they develop gasses and diarrehea

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15
Q

what is so special about glycolysis

A

all cells from all domains have enzymes to complete glycolysis

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16
Q

what are the products for glycolysis

A

2 ATP, and 2 NADH’s, and 2 Pyruvates

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17
Q

what enzyme turns glucose into its next step? what is its next step? what inhibits this enzyme?

A

hexokinase turns glucose into glucose-6-phosphate. overproduction of g-6-p inhibits hexokinase

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18
Q

what are the two next steps from g-6-p and what is the enzyme for the second step? what inhibits this enzyme?

A

g-6-p turns into f-6-p and f-6-p turns into f-1,6-biphosphate by the enzyme PFK or phosphofructokinase. ATP allosterically inhibits PFK

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19
Q

what is the rate limiting step or the committed step of glycolysis? why is it so important?

A

the rate limiting step is the creation of f-6-p into f-1,6-p because it is an irreversible step and the reaction is very favorable

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20
Q

what is something that is common in long pathways

A

the early steps of the pathway tend to be regulated

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21
Q

when does fermentation occur? what are the two types of fermentation?

A

fermentation occurs when oxygen is not present and the two types are lactic acid fermentation and ethanol fermentation

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22
Q

why does fermentation occur?

A

ETC cannot occur therefore we have NAD+ turning into NADH but we need NAD+ for glycolysis

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23
Q

what is oxidative decarboxylation?

A

a process in which carbon dioxide is produced through the removal of a carbon group as a result of oxidation reactions

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24
Q

what is the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

A

pyruvate is oxidatively decarboxylated by the PDC which turns it from a 3 carbon molecule to a 2 carbon molecule. this 2c molecule is the bonded with coenzyme A so it can go through the krebs cycle

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25
Q

prosthetic group

A

a cofactor that is very tightly/ covalently bound to an enzyme

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26
Q

what is thiamine and why is it important

A

thiamine is vitamin b and it is important for PDC and ETC to occur

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27
Q

in short, what occurs in the citric acid cycle

A

acetyl-coA (2c) is added to oxaloacetate (4c) to create citric acid that is then decarboxylated to removed 2 co2 molecules.

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28
Q

what is produced in the krebs cycle from one glucose unit? what is important to remember

A

from one glucose unit, the krebs cycle makes 6 NADH’s and 2 FADH2’s, since glycolysis makes 2 pyruvate molecules, the cycle occurs twice. but for one pyruvate molecule, only 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 are made

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29
Q

what are the products of the pdc?

A

2 NADH’s per glucose but 1 per pyruvate

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30
Q

where does glycolysis occur? where does PDC occur?

A

glycolysis occurs in cytosol and PDC occurs in mitochondrial matrix

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31
Q

where does krebs cycle occur?

A

matrix

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32
Q

how many membranes does a mitochondrion have and what characterizes them?

A

it have two lipid bilayers, an outer and inner one. the outer one is smooth and had large pores formed by porin proteins. the inner one is impermeable and is densely folded into structures called cristae

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33
Q

where does the outer membrane of mito get its pores

A

porin proteins

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34
Q

what are the densely folded structures in inner membrane in mito called

A

cristae

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35
Q

cristaes extend into the

A

matrix which is the innermost part of the mito

36
Q

what is the intermembrane space

A

space between inner and outer membranes

37
Q

how do prokaryotes do ETC without any membranes

A

they do ETC in the cytoplasm and create the proton gradient between its cell wall to make ATP

38
Q

what is really needed for ETC to occur

A

an impermeable wall

39
Q

what is oxidative phosphorylation

A

the oxidation of high energy electron carriers NADH and FADH2 with the phosphorylation of ADP to ATP

40
Q

how does the proton gradient create energy

A

energy released from ETA is used to pump H ions out of the matrix into the inner membrane and this gradient powers ATP synthase by having H ions go through it making ADP to ATP

41
Q

what are the three biggest electron carriers called all together and where they at

A

they are called cytochromes because of the presence of the heme group. they are embedded within the membrane

42
Q

what is the first electron carrier called in the ETC

A

NADH dehydrogenase or enzyme Q reductase

43
Q

what is the second electron carrier called in the ETC

A

ubiquinone or coenzyme Q

44
Q

what is the third electron carrier called in the ETC

A

cytochrome C reductase

45
Q

what is the fourth electron carrier called in the ETC

A

cytochrome C

46
Q

what is the fifth electron carrier called in the ETC

A

cytochrome C oxidase

47
Q

what is different between the big electron carries and the second and fourth electron carriers

A

they are not embedded within the membrane

48
Q

what is the ph in the matrix and what does it do?

A

the ph is high (basic) than the rest of the cell because they pump all the H+ ions out into the inner membrane

49
Q

what is different between NADH and FADH2 when they go through the etc?

A

NADH starts at the first electron carrier while FADH2 starts at the second electron carrier

50
Q

after the five electron carriers, what enzyme do you have?

A

ATP synthase which is a proton channel that uses H+ passing through as energy to make ADP to ATP

51
Q

ATP production is dependent on the

A

proton gradient

52
Q

pumping H+ is favorable or unfavorable

A

unfavorable so you need energy for it to occur

53
Q

NADH pumps how many protons and ATP syn uses how many protons to make ATP? what is the resulting ATP made?

A

NADH pumps 10 protons and ATP syn used 4 so a total of 2.5 ATP’s are made

54
Q

FADH2 pumps how many protons and ATP syn uses how many protons to make ATP? what is the resulting ATP made? WHY???

A

NADH pumps 6 protons and ATP syn used 4 so a total of 1.5 ATP’s are made BECAUSE FADH2 SKIPS THE FIRST E- CARRIER

55
Q

what is the glycerol phosphate shuttle

A

its a shuttle that delivers the electrons from NADH made from glycolysis directly to ubiquinone

56
Q

how many ATP’s are created from NADH that is made in the cytosol

A

1.5 ATP because just like FADH2 is skips the first electron carrier

57
Q

glycolysis makes how many ATPS from ATP’s themselves and high energy e- carriers in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

eukaryotes: make 2 ATP’s and 3 ATP’s from 2 NADHs
prokaryotes make 2 ATP’s and 5 ATP’s from 2 NADHs

58
Q

PDC makes how many ATPS from ATP’s themselves and high energy e- carriers in prokaryotes and eukaryotes? Per GLUCOSE

A

both make 5 ATP’s from NADH

59
Q

Krebs makes how many ATPS from ATP’s themselves and high energy e- carriers in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?

A

both make 15 ATP from 6 NADHs, 3 ATP’s from 2 FADH2’s and 2 GTP’s

60
Q

after going through all cellular respiration, how many ATP’s have we made from one glucose unit

A

prokaryotes made 32 ATP and eukaryotes made 30 ATP

61
Q

gluconeogenesis

A

occurs when dietary sources of glucose are unavailable and liver has been depleted of glycogen and glucose, the cycle makes glucose from non carb precursors like pyruvate, glycerol, amino acids

62
Q

what is special about gluconeogenesis

A

its just like glycolysis but in reverse

63
Q

near the end of gluconeogenesis what steps should we focus on

A

turning f-1,6-bpinto f-6-p and turning g-6-p into glucose

64
Q

in gluconeogenesis, what enzyme turns f-1,6-bP into f-6-p? is this reversible or irreversible

A

f-1,6-biphosphatase and its irreversible

65
Q

in gluconeogenesis, what enzyme turns f-6-p into g-6-p?

A

glucose-6-phosphatase and its irreversible

66
Q

glycolysis is what delta g? gluconeogensis is what?

A

favorable, unfavorable so it uses rxn coupling

67
Q

opposing pathways need to be regulated because

A

so that futile cycling (pathways occurring at the same time) does occur

68
Q

reciprocal control

A

a same molecule regulates 2 enzymes based on current cell needs

69
Q

insulin activates what enzyme and starts what process

A

it activates f-2,6-bp which is activates PFK for glycolysis

70
Q

glucagon inhibits what enzyme and starts what process

A

it inhibits f-2,6-bp which activates f-1,6-bpase for gluconeogenesis

71
Q

what are the regulators for PFK and what process do these start/inhibit?

A

(+) regulator: f-2,6-bp and AMP (-) regulator: ATP
glycolysis

72
Q

what are the regulators for f-1,6-bpase in gluconeogensis

A

(+) regulator: ATP (-) regulator: f-2,6-bp and AMP

73
Q

where is glycogen stores

A

muscle and liver

74
Q

high insulin causes what process to start? high glucagon causes what processes to start

A

high insulin: glycogenesis to store all that new sugar
high glucagon: glycogenolysis

75
Q

what is the pentose phosphate pathway/ hexose monophosphate shunt

A

it uses diverted g-6-p from glycolysis to make NADPH, Ribose-5-phosphate, and glycolytic intermediates

76
Q

what are the two phases of the PPP? what occurs in both

A

theres the oxidative phase and the nonoxidative phase. oxidative phase is a irreversible process where NADPH and ribose is made. the non oxidative phase is where the glycolytic intermediates are made

77
Q

why is NADPH important

A

it is needed for Fatty acid synthesis and neutralizing reactive O2 species

78
Q

why is ribose-5-phosphate important

A

it is used to make nucleotides

79
Q

what is the regulatory enzyme for the PPP?

A

glucose-6-phosphotate dehydrogenase (G6PDH)

80
Q

NADPH acts as what for G6PDH? if you have a deficiency of G6DPH, what occurs?

A
  1. NADPH acts as a negative regulator to this enzyme 2. you have an increase of reactive O2 species
81
Q

Why is glucagon easy to hydrolyze?

A

Glucagon is very branched, making it easy to hydrolyze at the ends

82
Q

What is the first step of glyconeogenesis? what enzyme facilitates the step?

A

Pyruvate carboxylase converts pyruvate to oxoloacetate

83
Q

What would occur if you increase permeability of inner mitochondrial membrane?

A

The protons will move back into the matrix, following its natural gradient, causing no ATP to be made, and that unused energy be turned into heat.

84
Q

What cell phase is the pentose phosphate pathway most active? Why?

A

Because the pentose phosphate pathway makes ribose five phosphate for DNA, it is the most active during S phase, the synthesis phase

85
Q

Increased glycogenolysis cause increase of what molecule? Why?

A

Lactate because when there is free glucose present, lactic acid fermentation can occur.

mcat biochem textbook (6 decks)

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