Ch. 8: Social Processes, Attitudes, and Behavior

Question 1

defn: social action

Answer 1

actions and behaviors that individuals are performing or modulating because others are around (humans will behave in different ways based on their social environment and how their behavior will affect those around them)

Question 2

defn: social action vs. social interaction

Answer 2

social action: considers the individual that is surrounded by others

social interaction: considers 2+ individuals who take one another into account

Question 3

defn: social facilitation

Answer 3

people tend to perform better on simple tasks when in the presence of others (performance sparks a perceived evaluation)

Question 4

defn: Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation

Answer 4

being in the presence of others raises arousal –> enhances the performance of tasks one is already good at (simple tasks) and hinders performance of less familiar tasks (complex tasks)

Question 5

defn, aka, contributing factors: deindividuation

Answer 5

the loss of one’s self-awareness in a group setting and the associated adoption of a more group oriented identity

aka: mob mentality

factors: group cohesion (individual can relate to group), individual anonymity (diffuse sense of individual responsibility)

Question 6

defn: antinormative behavior

Answer 6

can stem from deindividuation

behavior not socially acceptable in most social circumstances

Question 7

defn, contributing effects: bystander effect

Answer 7

individuals do not intervene to assist those who are in perceived need when other people are present

likelihood and timeliness of response is inversely related to the # of bystanders

factors: less likely to notice out of the ordinary, take cues from others, degree of emergency, degree of responsibility felt (competency, relation to at risks, deserving of aid?), group cohesion

Question 8

defn: social loafing

Answer 8

the tendency of individuals to reduce effort when in a group setting

Question 9

defn: peers and peer pressure

Answer 9

peers: individuals regarded as equals within a social group

peer pressure: the social influenced placed on an individual by one’s peers

can be positive or negative

can lead to risky behaviors in teens

Question 10

defn: identity shift effect

Answer 10

when one’s state of harmony is disrupted by a threat of social rejection, they often will confirm to the group norms

they then experience internal conflict bc the behavior is outside the norm for the individual

to eliminate the internal conflict: identity shift wherein they adopt the group standards as their own

Question 11

defn: cognitive dissonance

Answer 11

the simultaneous presence of two opposing thoughts or opinions which generally leads to an internal state of discomfort

individuals will try to reduce this discomfort by changing, adding to, or minimizing one of these dissonant thoughts

Question 12

what was Solomon Asch’s conformity experiment testing? what were the results?

Answer 12

test: perception; examine if the behavior of the individual was influenced by the confederates

result: individuals will sometimes provide answers they know to be untrue if it avoids going against the group (the urge toward conformity could outweigh the desire to be correct)

Question 13

defn: group polarization

Answer 13

the tendency for groups to collaboratively make decisions that are MORE EXTREME than the individual ideas of the group members

can lead to riskier or more cautious decisions

Question 14

defn: choice shift

Answer 14

measured changes in decisions before and after group interaction

Question 15

defn: choice shift vs. group polarization

Answer 15

choice shift: measured changes in decisions before and after group interaction

group polarization: more general to tendency of a group to move to more extreme decisions as a result of interaction

Question 16

defn: groupthink

Answer 16

desire for harmony or conformity results in a group coming to an incorrect or poor decision

in an attempt to minimize conflict: consensus decisions are reached without assessing alternative ideas

desire to agree with group causes loss of independent critical thinking

Question 17

what are the 8 factors that Irving Janis describes as indicative of groupthink? describe them.

Answer 17

1. ILLUSION OF INVULNERABILITY (encourage risk, ignore pitfalls, too optimistic)
2. COLLECTIVE RATIONALIZATION (ignore expressed concerns about group approved ideas)
3. ILLUSION OF MORALITY (believe group ideas are morally correct, disregarding contrary evidence)
4. EXCESSIVE STEREOTYPING (construct stereotypes of those expressing outside opinions)
5. PRESSURE FOR CONFORMITY (feel pressured not to express opinions that disagree with group, view opposition as disloyal)
6. SELF-CENSORSHIP (withhold ideas and opinions that disagree with the group)
7. ILLUSION OF UNANIMITY (believe the decisions and judgements of the group to be without disagreement, even if it does exist)
8. MINDGUARDS (some may decide to take on a role protecting the group against oppoisng views)

Question 18

what 3 cultural phenomena involve similar patterns of thinking to groupthink and group polarization)?

Answer 18

riots, fads, and mass hysteria

Question 19

defn: mass hysteria

Answer 19

a shared, intense concern about threats to society

groupthink features lead to a shared delusion that is augmented by distrust, rumors, propaganda, and fear mongering

Question 20

defn: culture

Answer 20

the beliefs, behaviors, actions, and characteristics of a group or society of people

learned by living with in a society, observing behaviors and traits, and adopting them

Question 21

defn: cultural assimilation

Answer 21

the process by which an individual’s or group’s behavior and culture begin to resemble that of another group

can also mean that groups with different cultures begin to merge

an uneven merging of cultures

Question 22

what are the four primary factors used to assess the degree of assimilation in immigrant communities?

Answer 22

1. socioeconomic status
2. geographic distribution
3. language attainment
4. intermarriage

Question 23

defn: ethnic enclaves

Answer 23

an alternative to assimilation

locations with a high concentration of one specific ethnicity (e.g. Chinatown)

Question 24

defn and aka: multiculturalism

Answer 24

aka: cultural diversity

communities/societies containing multiple cultures or ethnic groups

encourages, respects, and celebrates cultural differences

Question 25

multiculturalism vs. assimilation

Answer 25

multiculturalism (cultural mosaic, coexistence) assimilation (melting pot, uneven, into one homogenous culture)

Question 26

defn and char: subculture

Answer 26

groups of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong symbolic attachment to things such as clothing, music can differentiate the group from the majority can be founded based on race, gender, ethnicity, sexuality, etc.

Question 27

defn: counterculture

Answer 27

a subculture group that gravitates toward an identity that is at odds with majority culture and deliberately opposes prevailing social mores

Question 28

defn: socialization

Answer 28

the process of developing, inheriting, and spreading norms, customs, and beliefs individuals gain the knowledge, skills, habits, and behaviors necessary for inclusion in society

Question 29

defn: cultural transmission/learning vs. cultural diffusion

Answer 29

cultural transmission/learning: the process by which beliefs, customs and norms passed down from one generation to another WITHIN a society cultural diffusion: the process by which beliefs, customs, and norms are spread from one culture to another

Question 30

defn: primary vs. secondary socialization

Answer 30

primary: - occurs during childhood - we initially learn acceptable actions and attitudes in our society - primarily through observation of our caregivers and other close adults - sets stage for future socialization and personal opinion development secondary: - process of learning appropriate behavior/rules within smaller, specific sections of larger society - outside the home (schools, sports, church, etc.) - teens and adults - smaller changes/refinements to already established behaviors - can also occur when you move, change schools, or change professions

Question 31

defn: anticipatory socialization

Answer 31

the process by which a person prepares for future occupation, living situation, or relationship changes (ex: premed student shadowing doctors)

Question 32

defn: resocialization

Answer 32

process by which one discards old behaviors in favor of new ones through intensive retraining and can be positive or negative (e.g. cult, army)

Question 33

defn: norms vs. mores

Answer 33

norms: societal rules that define boundaries of acceptable behavior (serve as a means of social control) mores: widely observed social norms

Question 34

defn: social control

Answer 34

a mechanism for regulating the behavior of individuals and groups

Question 35

defn: sanctions (positive and negative)

Answer 35

penalties for misconduct or rewards for appropriate behavior negative sanctions punish behaviors that deviate from norms positive sanctions reward behaviors that comply with norms a means of social control

Question 36

defn: formal vs. informal sanctions

Answer 36

formal: enforced by formal social institutions like governments or employers (e.g. promotions, jail) informal: enforced by social groups (sit at certain cafeteria table, exclusion from social group)

Question 37

defn: taboo

Answer 37

what is socially unacceptable, disgusting, or reprehensible

Question 38

defn: folkways

Answer 38

norms that refer to behavior that is considered polite in particular social interactions (shaking hands after a sports match)

Question 39

defn and life path progression for interpersonal relationships: agent of socialization

Answer 39

any part of society that is important when learning social norms and values in childhood: caregivers teens: direct family, social circles adults: colleagues, bosses

Question 40

defn: popular culture

Answer 40

common trends, beliefs, prevalent at a given point in time

Question 41

what are 9 agents of socialization (with some examples of what they provide)?

Answer 41

1. family (language, relationships, rules, social interactions, morals, role models, behavior) 2. peers (activities, trends) 3. religion (values, love for others, life meaning, life guidelines) 4. government (laws, security, sanctions, punishment) 5. media (stereotypes, trends, how to act) 6. work (employment, money, rules, roles) 7. ethnic background (beliefs, customs, values) 8. clubs/social groups (social interaction, activity rules) 9. school (grammar, social setting values)

Question 42

defn: deviance

Answer 42

any violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society (can be positive or negative)

Question 43

defn: social stigma

Answer 43

extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society (diff in beliefs, abilities, behaviors, and appearance) evolves over time, can spread to affect associated others

Question 44

defn: labeling theory

Answer 44

strongly linked with deviance, stigmatization, and reputation the labels given to a person affect how others respond to that person, and affect the person's self-image labels can lead to channeling of behavior into deviance or conformity

Question 45

defn: role engulfment

Answer 45

internalizing a label and assuming the role implied by the label leads to the assumed role taking over a person's identity

Question 46

defn: differential association theory

Answer 46

deviance (esp. criminal behavior) can be learned through interactions with others intimate exposure to others engaging in deviant behavior lays the groundwork for people to engage in deviant behavior themselves differential association is the degree to which one is surrounded by ideals that adhere to social norms vs. ideals that go against them when deviant groups are more numerous or intense than normative groups, individuals gravitate toward deviant behavior

Question 47

defn: strain theory

Answer 47

attempts to explain deviance as a natural reaction to the disconnect btwn social goals and social structure e.g. American dream deviant behavior may arise as an attempt to achieve the social goal outside of the limiting social structure

Question 48

defn: conformity vs. compliance vs. obedience

Answer 48

CONFORMITY = matching one's attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors to group or societal expectations COMPLIANCE = change in behavior based on a direct request made by someone without actual authority over an individual OBEDIENCE = changing one's behavior in response to a direct or or expectation expressed by authority figure

Question 49

aka: conformity

Answer 49

majority influence

Question 50

defn: normative conformity

Answer 50

the desire to fit into a group because of fear of rejection

Question 51

what are two types of conformity? describe them.

Answer 51

internalization: changing one's behavior to fit with a group while also privately agreeing with the group ideas identification: the outward acceptance of others' ideas without personally taking on these ideas

Question 52

describe the Stanford Prison Experiment in brief and what social process it relates to

Answer 52

21 male college students randomly assigned to prisoner or guard role internalization (a type of conformity) had to be ended after 6 days because "guards" had begun to be physically abusive to "prisoners"

Question 53

what type of society tends to conformity? what type doesn't?

Answer 53

does: collectivist culture (group mentality supersedes the individual) doesn't: individualist culture (value independent thought and unique ideas)

Question 54

what are the four main compliance techniques? describe them

Answer 54

FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR = begins with small request, after gaining compliance, larger request is made DOOR-IN-THE-FACE = opposite of above; a large request is made first, and if refused, a second smaller request is made (actual goal) LOWBALL TECHNIQUE = requestor will get an initial commitment from an individual, then raise the cost of the commitment (can include money, effort, time) THAT'S-NOT-ALL TECHNIQUE = individual is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than expected (i.e. infomercials)

Question 55

are people more likely to obey or comply? why?

Answer 55

obey because of real or perceived social power of the individual

Question 56

describe Stanley Milgram's obedience experiment in brief. what were the results?

Answer 56

learner = paid actor, teacher = volunteer who told they would be randomly assigned to teacher or learner teacher given sample shock, told they would be administer shocks to learners who make mistakes teachers told they would need to increase voltage each time learner was incorrect learners receive no real shocks, but act more and more uncomfortable --> teachers become less willing to increase shock voltage HOWEVER using increasingly demanding language, the researchers were able to get he majority of participants to administer very high voltage shocks, despite discomfort shown while doing so PEOPLE OBEY EVNE IF THEY DO NOT WISH TO CONTINUE

Question 57

defn: social cognition

Answer 57

focuses on the ways in which people think about others and how these ideas impact behavior impacted by attitudes

Question 58

defn and cause: attitude

Answer 58

the expression of positive or negative feeling toward a person, place, thing, or scenario develop from experiences with others who affect our opinions and behaviors

Question 59

what are the three primary components of attitude? describe them.

Answer 59

ABC 1. AFFECTIVE (the way a person FEELS toward something, emotional) 2. BEHAVIORAL (the way a person ACTS with respect to something) 3. COGNITIVE (the way an individual thinks about something, usually the justification for the other two components)

Question 60

what are the four main theories of attitudes?

Answer 60

1. functional attitudes theory 2. learning theory 3. elaboration likelihood model 4. social cognitive theory

Question 61

defn: functional attitudes thoery

Answer 61

attitudes serve four functions 1. knowledge 2. ego expression 3. adaptation 4. ego defense

Question 62

defn and corresp attitude theory: knowledge function

Answer 62

functional attitudes theory attitudes help provide organization to thoughts and experiences knowing the attitudes of others helps to predict their behavior

Question 63

defn and corresp attitude theory: ego expression

Answer 63

functional attitudes theory allows us to communicate and solidify our self-identity

Question 64

defn and corresp attitude theory: adaptation

Answer 64

functional attitudes theory expressed socially acceptable attitudes will lead to acceptance

Question 65

defn and corresp attitude theory: ego defense

Answer 65

functional attitudes theory attitudes protect our self-esteem or justify actions that we know are wrong

Question 66

defn: learning theory

Answer 66

an attitude theory attitudes are developed through different learning forms (i.e. direct contact with object of attitude, direct instruction from others, others' attitudes, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, observational learning)

Question 67

defn: elaboration likelihood model

Answer 67

a theory of attitude formation and attitude change that separates individuals on a continuum based on how they process persuasive information

Question 68

what are the two extremes of the elaboration likelihood model? what are these extremes referred to as?

Answer 68

1. elaborate extensively (think deeply about info, scrutinize its meaning and purpose, draw conclusions or make decisions based on this analysis) = CENTRAL ROUTE PROCESSING / CENTRAL ROUTE TO PERSUASION (scientific paper) 2. do not elaborate, focus on superficial details (appearance of the one delivering the argument, catchphrases, slogans, credibility) = PERIPHERAL ROUTE PROCESSING / PERIPHERAL ROUTE TO PERSUASION (ad with just a logo that is a visually appealing image)

Question 69

defn: social cognitive theory

Answer 69

an attitude theory people learn how to behave and shape attitudes by observing the behaviors of others behavior develops through direct observation and replication of the actions of others (influenced by personal factors and environment)

Question 70

defn: Bandura's triadic reciprocal causation

Answer 70

behavior, personal factors, and environment are not independent concepts, but influence each other