Ch. The Rest Of 6, 7, & 8 Test Flashcards
1
Q
What is the effect of enzyme concentration on the rate of enzyme action?
A
Low enzyme concentration= low rate of rxn
Increasing enzyme concentration= increasing rate of rxn
Adding enzyme= no increase rate of rxn
All substrates bind with enzymes
2
Q
What is the effect of substrate concentration on the rate of enzyme action?
A
Increasing substrate concentration= increasing rate rxn
Adding more substrate= no increase rate of rxn
Max achieved rate when all enzymes bind with the substrate
3
Q
What are the two types of enzyme inhibitors?
A
Competitive inhibitor
Non competitive inhibitor
4
Q
What is the difference between competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors?
A
Competitive- binds to active site
Non competitive- does not bind to the active site
5
Q
What are examples of inhibitors?
A
Toxins, poisons, pesticides, and antibiotics
6
Q
What are the two processes involved in regulation of enzyme activity?
A
Allosteric regulation
Feedback inhibition
7
Q
How does allosteric regulation work?
A
Activator stabilizes the active form of the enzyme
Inhibitor stabilizes the inactive form of the enzyme
8
Q
What does allosteric regulation have?
A
Allosteric regulated enzymes
9
Q
What are Allosteric regulated enzymes made from?
A
Polypeptide subunits
10
Q
What two forms does Allosteric regulated enzymes have?
A
Active
Inactive
11
Q
How does feedback inhibition work?
A
End product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway
Prevents a cell from wasting chemical resources by synthesizing more product than is needed
12
Q
What is metabolism?
A
Totality of an organisms chemical rxns
13
Q
What are the two types of metabolism?
A
Anabolism
Catabolism
14
Q
A—>B—>C—>D
What are the reactants?
What are the intermediate products?
What is the end product?
A
ABC
BC
D
15
Q
Each step in a rxn is catabolized by what?
A
Catalyst
16
Q
What are the two metabolic pathways?
A
Catabolic
Anabolic
17
Q
What is the difference between a catabolic and anabolic pathway?
A
Catabolic- release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds
Anabolic- consume energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones
18
Q
Why do we eat foods? (Carbs, proteins, fats and lipids)
A
Sources of substances for biosynthesis of cellular components
Sources of ATP (uses transport of substances, mechanical works, endergonic processes)
19
Q
What are the end products of the digestion of carbs, proteins, fats and lipids?
A
Carbs- sugars
Proteins- amino acids
Lipids- fatty acids and glycerol
20
Q
What is cellular respiration?
A
Break down of glucose in the presence of oxygen to carbon dioxide and water releasing ATP
21
Q
Where does cellular respiration occur in a eukaryotic cell?
A
Mitochondria
22
Q
Where does cellular respiration occur in prokaryotic cells?
A
Cytoplasm
23
Q
Effect of substrate concentration.
A
Enzyme concentration- limiting (constant)=3
Substrate concentration- variable (x-axis)
24
Q
Effect of enzyme concentration.
A
Enzyme concentration- variable (x-axis)
Substrate concentration- limiting (constant)=3
25
Metabolic pathways.
Series of linked rxns
Begin with a specific reactant and produce an end product
26
For competitive and noncompetitive inhibitors, does a rxn occur?
No
27
Another name for rxn?
Catalysis
28
_____ product feeds back to _____ reactant to make a rxn active again.
Final
Initial
29
In feedback inhibition the enzyme is the _____.
Final product
30
Anabolism.
Endergonic (ATP)
31
Catabolism.
Exergonic ( no ATP, releases ATP)
32
In cellular respiration, the oxygen in water comes from _____.
The air we breathe
33
What is the difference between autotrophs and heterotrophs?
Autotrophs- energy from CO2
Heterotrophs- energy form organic compounds
34
What is the source of energy for autotrophs?
Sunlight
35
Redox reaction is a reaction that involves transfer of electrons between _____. In _____, a substance loses electrons, or is oxidized. In _____, a substance gains electron, or is reduced.
Reactants
Oxidation
Reduction
36
C6H12O6 + 6O2 —> 6CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP
what are reactants?
What is reducing agent?
What is oxidizing agent?
What is oxidized?
What is reduced?
Glucose and oxygen
Water
Oxygen
Water
Carbon dioxide
37
What are the two electron carriers?
NAD and FAD
38
What is NAD and FADs function?
Electron carriers
Can be reversible oxidized and reduced
39
What are the oxidized and reduced forms of nicotinamide?
Oxidized: NAD+2H, FAD+2H
Reduced: NADH+H, FADH+H
40
What are the three types of phosphorylation?
Substrate level
Oxidative
Photo phosphorylation
41
What is phosphorylation?
Add a phosphate group to ADP to make ATP
42
Substrate level:
Source of phosphate?
Location in eukaryotes?
Location in prokaryotes?
Organic
Cytosol/matrix
Cytosol
43
Oxidative level:
Source of phosphate?
Location in eukaryotes?
Location in prokaryotes?
Inorganic Pi
Cristae
Cell membrane
44
Photophosphorylation:
Source of phosphate?
Location in eukaryotes?
Location in prokaryotes?
Inorganic Pi
Thylakoids in chloroplasts
Thylakoids in cell membrane
45
Organic compound + ADP —> pyruvate + ATP
What is the donor of phosphate to make ATP from ADP?
Organic compound
46
In oxidative level of phosphorylation and photophosphoylation, what is the donor of phosphate? What energy is used for oxidative level phosphorylation and what energy is used for photophosphorylation?
Pi
Light energy from the sun
47
Parts of mitochondria and where are they?
Matrix- inside Cristae
Cristae- wavy
Outer membrane- right outside mitochondria
Intermembrane space- between Cristae and outer membrane
48
What are the processes used by microbes to generate ATP?
Cellular respiration
Fermentation
49
What process requires oxygen?
Aerobic
50
What is the function of oxygen?
Serves as a final electron acceptor
51
Final electron acceptor of aerobic respiration?
Oxygen
52
Final electron acceptor of anaerobic respiration?
Anything other than oxygen
53
Final electron acceptor of fermentation?
Anything other than oxygen
54
What process generates the most ATP form one molecule of glucose?
Aerobic
55
What process generates the least ATP from one molecule of glucose?
Fermentation
56
What are the four stages of cellular respiration of glucose?
Glycolysis
Pyruvate oxidation
Citric acid cycle
Electron transport chain and chemiosmosis
57
What is another name for glycolysis?
EMP pathway
58
What part of the cell does glycolysis occur in prokaryotes and eukaryotes?
Both in cytosol
59
How many steps is glycolysis?
10
60
What happens during energy investment stage of glycolysis?
2 ATP used?
61
What happens in conserving in glycolysis?
Makes two private acids
62
After completion of glycolysis, what happens to glucose?
It is broken down into two molecules of pyruvate
63
After completion of glycolysis, how many net ATP are produced from on molecule of glucose? By what type of phosphorylation?
2
Substrate level
64
After completion of glycolysis, how many NADH are produced from one molecule of glucose?
2
65
What does competitive bind to?
Active site
66
What does noncompetitive bind to?
Enzyme
67
What will sugar form to?
CO2
68
What is NAD derived from?
Niacin
69
What is FAD derived from?
Riboflavin
70
What kind of energy do NADH and FADH have?
Potential
71
What is substrate and oxidative level in?
Animals, plants, bacteria, archaea
72
What is photophosphoylation in?
Organisms that have chlorophyll
73
What is Pi?
Inorganic phosphate
74
What are the types of cellular respiration?
Aerobic and anaerobic
75
What is the output of glucose?
2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH
76
What is the total ATP produced in glycolysis?
4
77
What is the net ATP produced in glycolysis?
2
78
What is the final product of glycolysis?
Pyruvate
79
What Happens to pyruvuc acid in pyruvate oxidation?
It is converted to acetyl CoA
80
How many CO2 are produced from two molecules of pyruvic acid?
2
81
How many NADH are produced from two molecules of pyruvic acid?
2
82
What is another name for citric acid cycle?
Krebs cycle, TCA
83
What part of prokaryotic cell does citric acid cycle occur?
Cytosol
84
What part of eukaryotic cell does TCA occur?
Matrix of mitochondria
85
What is the substance that enters the Krebs cycle?
Acetyl CoA
86
How many steps is the citric acid cycle?
8
87
After completion of TCA, for two molecules of acetyl CoA, how many ATP are produced and what is the type of phosphorylation?
2
Substrate level
88
After completion of Krebs cycle, for two molecules of acetyl CoA, how many NADH are produced?
6
89
After completion of citric acid cycle, for two molecules of acetyl CoA, how many FADH are produced?
2
90
After completion of TCA, for two molecules of acetyl CoA, how many CO2 are produced?
4
91
What composes the electron transport system?
4 protein complexes embedded in the membrane
92
What is the main function of the ETS?
Create a proton motive force (PMF)
93
What complex in the ETS accepts electrons carried by NADH?
1
94
What complex in the ETS accepts electrons carried by FADH?
2
95
As the electrons are passed from one acceptor to another in the ETS, what is released?
Energy
96
What is the function of the energy that is released as the electrons move down the chain?
Pump protons from the matrix to the intermembrane space
97
What happens to the H+ concentration outside the membrane and inside the membrane?
Out- more protons
In- less protons
98
What is the proton motive force?
Proton gradient
99
What is the final electron acceptor in ETS?
Oxygen
100
What is chemiosmosis?
The process of ions moving through a membrane from high to low concentration based on concentration and charge
101
What substance is formed when H+ go back inside the membrane through ATP synthase?
ATP
102
What is the type of phosphorylation that occurs in the ETS?
Oxidative
103
In ETS, for one NADH, how many ATPs are formed?
3
104
In ETS, for one FADH, how many ATPs are formed?
2
105
Why are there more ATP generated per molecule of NADH than per molecule of FADH?
NADH has more protons than FADH
106
How many ATP are produced by substrate level phosphorylation?
2
107
How many ATP are produced by oxidative phosphorylation?
6
108
Which generates more ATP? Oxidative phosphorylation or substrate level phosphorylation?
Oxidative
109
How many total ATP are generated?
40
110
How many net ATP are generated?
38
111
What stage generates the most NADH?
Oxidative phosphorylation
112
What enzymes regulate cellular respiration?
Phosphofructokinase, pyruvate dehydrogenase, isocitrate dehydrogenase
113
Name the inhibitors of phosphofructokinase?
ATP and citrate
114
Name the activator of phosphofructokinase?
ATP
115
Name the inhibitor of the pyruvate dehydrogenase?
NADH
116
What are the two processes that oxidize glucose in the absence of oxygen?
Anaerobic and fermentation
117
What is anaerobic?
Inorganic molecules as final electron acceptor ( prokaryotes)
118
What is fermentation?
Inorganic molecules as final electron acceptor
119
What are methanogens?
Anaerobes, methane producers
120
What do methanogens do?
reduce CO2 to methane
121
Where are methanogens found?
Sewage, swamps, marine sediments, and rice patties
122
What is the carbon source and final electron acceptor of methanogens?
CO2
123
What are sulfur and sulfate reducing bacteria?
Anaerobes
124
What do sulfur and sulfate reducing bacteria do?
Produce hydrogen sulfate
125
What do sulfur and sulfate reducing bacteria do?
Produce hydrogen sulfate
126
Where do sulfur and sulfate reducing bacteria live?
Mud and organic materials
127
What are the carbon sources and final electron acceptor of sulfur and sulfate reducing bacteria?
Sulfate
128
Where does oxidative phosphorylation occur in the mitochondria?
Innermembrane/cristae
129
High energy electron carriers that donate electrons?
NADH and FADH
130
What kind of phosphorylation do plants perform?
Photophosphorylation
131
Does glycolysis require oxygen?
No
132
What are the two steps of pyruvate oxidation?
Decarbonize
Addition of CoA
133
Wheee does pyruvate oxidation occur in eukaryote?
Matrix of the mitochondria
134
Where does pyruvate oxidation occur in prokaryotes?
Cytoplasm
135
What part of glycolysis has the most production of ATP, NADH, and FADH?
Krebs cycle
136
Where does ETS happen in eukaryotes?
Cristae/ innermembrane
137
Where does ETS happen in prokaryotes?
Cell/plasma membrane
138
What is PMF?
Difference of proton concentration
139
Flow of electrons
Complex 1 NADH complex 2 FADH—> Q—> COMPLEX 3–> C —>complex 4
140
1 NADH=
3 ATP
141
1 FADH=
2 ATP
142
How many ATP do eukaryotes produce?
36
143
How many ATP do prokaryotes produced?
38
144
How many ATP does oxidative phosphorylation produce?
34
145
How many ATP does standard level phosphorylation produce?
4
146
What is fermentation?
Anaerobic process generating ATP using organic molecules as final electron acceptors
147
Two examples of fermentation?
Ethanol fermentation and lactic acid fermentation
148
Where does ethanol fermentation occur?
Yeast
149
What does ethanol fermentation produce?
CO2, ethanol, NAD
150
Where does lactic acid fermentation occur?
In animal cells (especially muscles)
151
What does lactic acid fermentation produce?
Electrons transferred from NADH to private to produce lactic acid
152
What is the importance of fermentation?
To get back NAD
153
Alcoholic fermentation
2CH3CHO + 2NADH —> 2CH3CH2OH + 2NAD
(Acetylaldehyde) (ethanol)
What is reduced?
What is oxidized?
What is oxidizing agent?
What is reducing agent?
Acetylaldehyde
NADH
Acetylaldehyde
NADH
154
Lactic acid fermentation
2CH3COCOOH + 2NADH —> 2CH3CHOHCOOH + 2NAD
(Pyruvic acid) (lactic acid)
What is reduced?
What is oxidized?
What is oxidizing agent?
What is reducing agent?
Pyruvic acid
NADH
Pyruvic acid
NADH
155
What causes an oxygen depth to develop?
When the bodies demand for oxygen exceeds the max amount of
156
Can proteins and fats be used as sources of ATP?
Yes
157
What are the products of protein digestion?
Amino acids
158
Amino acids enter what stage of cellular respiration?
Krebs cycle
159
What are the products of fat digestion?
Glycerol and fatty acids
160
Glycerol enters what stage of cellular respiration?
Glycolysis
161
Fatty acids enter what stage of cellular respiration?
TCA cycle
162
Photosynthesis is a process that converts _____ energy into _____ energy. The energy is stored in the bonds of glucose.
Light
Chemical
163
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H2O —> C6H12O6 + 6O2
What are reactants?
What is reducing agent?
What is oxidizing agent?
What is oxidized?
What is reduced?
CO2 and H2O
CO2
Water
CO2
Water
164
What cells in the leaves contain the chloroplasts?
Mesophyll cells
165
What is stomata?
Epidermal cells
166
What cells compose the stomata?
Guard cells
167
What is stoma?
Tiny pore surrounded by guard cells
168
Why are there more stomata on the underside of the leaf?
To conserve water
169
What are the parts of a chloroplast? Describe each.
Thylakoid- contains chlorophyll
Granum- stacks of thylakoids
Stroma- space in between
170
What is the green pigment called in chloroplasts?
Chlorophyll
171
What do chlorophyll a and b reflect?
Green
172
Caretenoids: Beta carotene, xanthophyll reflect what colors?
Red, orange, and yellow
173
What pigment is primarily responsible for photosynthesis?
Chlorophyll a
174
What are the accessory pigments?
Caretenoids and chlorophyll b
175
Why are chloroplasts colored green?
Because they absorb every color but green. They reflect green.
176
What is the stage of aerobic respiration that makes the most CO2?
TCA cycle
177
What is the purpose of ETS in aerobic respiration?
To create a proton gradient
178
What is the proton motive force in the mitochondria?
The concentration of protons is higher in the intermembrane than the matrix
179
Chemiosmosis in the mitochondria is the diffusion of _____ through ATP synthase from _____.
Protons
Intermembrane to matrix
180
What is the light energy used for photosynthesis?
Sunlight
181
Visible light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum. What is its color determined by?
Wavelength
182
What is the relationship between wavelength and amount of energy?
Increasing wavelength=decreasing energy
Inversely proportional to
183
Photosystems are reaction-center complexes surrounded by ______ and are located in the _____.
Light-harvesting complexes
Thylakoid membrane
184
What are light-harvesting complexes?
Pigment molecules bound to proteins that funnel the energy of photons to the reaction center
185
What is a primary electron acceptor?
In the reaction center accepts an excited electron from chlorophyll a
186
What are the two types of photosystems?
Photosystem 1
Photosystem 2
187
PS I best absorbs light with what wavelength?
680 nm
188
PS II best absorbs light with what wavelength?
700 nm
189
What are the two major stages of photosynthesis?
Light rxns
Dark rxns
190
What happens with lights rxns?
Photo part
191
What happens with dark rxns?
Synthesis part
192
What happens in photo part?
Two photophosphorylation: linear and cyclic
193
What is synthesis part also called?
Calvin cycle
194
What rxn is light dependent?
Light rxns
195
What rxn is light independent?
Dark rxns
196
Where do light runs take place?
Thylakoids
197
What are the inputs and outputs of light rxns?
In- H2O, NADP, ADP, Pi
Out- O2, ATP, NADPH
198
In light rxns, what is solar energy transformed into?
Chemical energy (ATP and NADH)
199
What are the two pathways of photophosphorylation?
Linear- noncyclic
Non linear- cyclic
200
Where do dark rxns take place?
Stroma
201
What are the inputs and outputs of dark rxns?
In- CO2, ATP, NADPH
Out- sugar
202
What are the photosystems involved in linear phosphorylation?
Photosystems 1 & 2
203
What photo system functions first?
Photosystem 2
204
The lost electrons in P680 are replaced by electrons coming from where?
Water
205
What gas is released when water is hydrolized?
Hydrogen and oxygen
206
What gas is released when water is hydrolized?
Hydrogen and oxygen
207
What happens to the electron coming from PS 2?
Replaced by splitting a water molecule
208
What replaces the lost electrons coming from PS 1?
Transferred to NADP to reduce NADPH
209
What are the end products of linear phosphorylation?
ATP, NADPH and oxygen
210
What are the photosystems involved in cyclic phosphorylation?
PS 1
211
When light strikes PS 1 what happens to the excited electron?
Passed down the ETS
212
What replaces the lost electron in PS 1?
Electrons that come from the ETS
213
What are the end products of cyclic photophosphorylation?
ATP
214
Is water hydrolyzed and O2 released in the process?
Yes
215
In the light rxn of photosynthesis, 8 photons yield _____ ATP and _____ NADPH.
2
2
216
The ETS in the chloroplast is in the _____.
Thylakoid membrane
217
Describe the transport of electrons in the electron transport system in the chloroplast.
Electrons are transported through a series of protein complexes embedded in the thylakoid membranes, moving from photosystem 2 and photosystem 1.
218
Where does the Calvin cycle take place in the chloroplasts?
Stroma
219
What does the Calvin cycle produce?
Glucose, NADP, ADP
220
What are the three steps ( phases) of the Calvin cycle?
Fixation of CO2
Reduction of CO2
Regeneration of CO2 acceptor
221
What enzyme is involved in step 1?
RuBisCO
222
What is the substrate of RubisCO?
RuBP
223
What is the first intermediate product of the Calvin cycle?
12 PGA
224
What happens in step 2?
12 PGA is reduced by NADPH to form 12 PGAL
225
How many PGAL are needed to make one molecule of glucose?
2
226
How many PGAL are reassembled to make 5 molecules of RuBP?
25
227
How many ATP and NADPH are required to make one molecule of glucose?
8 ATP and 12 NADPH
228
In the light rxn of photosynthesis, 8 photons yield 3 ATP and 2 NADPH. In the Calvin cycle, 18 ATP and 12 NADPH are required to make one molecule of glucose. How many photons then were absorbed to make one molecule of glucose?
72 photons
229
Recall the events of the light rxns and the dark rxns.
Light rxns capture light energy to produce ATP and NADPH, which are then used in the dark rxns to fix carbon dioxide into glucose
230
What are produced in photosynthesis in the chloroplasts that are used for cellular respiration in the mitochondrion?
Glucose and O2
231
What are produced in cellular respiration in the mitochondrion that are used for photosynthesis in the chloroplasts?
Water and CO2
232
If the concentration of CO2 in the cell is ______, RubisCO would catalyze the reaction of RuBP with CO2.
High
233
To conserve water during hot and arid conditions, stomata close. What is the consequence if stomata are closed?
CO2 cannot enter the leaves and oxygen cannot exit.
234
What is photorespiration?
Alternate pathway for production of G3P by RuBisCO.
235
If the concentration of CO2 in the cell is _____, RuBisCO would catalyze the reaction of RuBP with oxygen.
Low
236
Why is photorespiration a wasteful process?
It consumes O2 to make CO2, not making ATP or sugar.
237
What are the pathways of photosynthesis?
C3
C4
CAM
238
What kind of cell does the Calvin cycle occur in, in C3 photosynthesis?
Mesophyll
239
In C3 photosynthesis, the end result of CO2 fixation is what kind of molecule?
G3P (PGA)
240
In C4 photosynthesis, what type of cell does CO2 fixation by PEP Carboxylase occur in?
Mesophyll
241
In C4 photosynthesis for CO2 fixation by PEP Carboxylase, what is the enzyme and substrate involved in the initial fixation of CO2?
PEP Carboxylase
242
In C4 photosynthesis in CO2 fixation by PEP Carboxylase, the four carbon compounds are exported to _____, where they release CO2 that is then used in the Calvin Cycle.
Bundle sheath cells
243
In C4 photosynthesis in CO2 fixation by RuBisCO (Calvin Cycle), where does it take place?
Bundle sheath cells
244
CAM plants open their stomata at _____, incorporating CO2 into organic acids. Stomata close during the _____, and CO2 is released from organic acids and used in the Calvin Cycle.
Night
Day
245
In CO2 fixation in CAM plants, where does it take place?
Mesophyll cells
246
Does C4 or CAM exhibit spatial separation of steps?
C4
247
Does C4 or CAM exhibit temporal separation of steps?
CAM
248
What are the similarities and differences of the three pathways of photosynthesis?
C3: 3 carbon, RuBisCO
C4: 4 carbon, PEP Carboxylase
CAM: 4 carbon, PEP Carboxylase
249
What pathway is more efficient in hot and dry environments with high light intensity?
CAM
250
What pathway is more efficient in cool, moist environments with moderate light intensity?
C3
251
What pathway in more efficient in warm, dry environments with high light intensity?
C4
252
What is one characteristic that best distinguishes living things from non living things?
The ability to reproduce
253
What is the continuity of life based on?
Reproduction or cell division
254
What are the three functions of cell division?
Reproduction
Growth and development
Tissue renewal
255
What is a chromatin?
A tangled mass of threadlike DNA in a non dividing cell
256
What is a chromosome?
Condensed DNA molecules observed in dividing cells
257
How many DNA molecules are there in a single copy chromosome?
1
258
When the single copy chromosome duplicates, how many chromatids are there?
2
259
When a single copy chromosome duplicates, what joins the chromatids together?
Centromere
260
When a single copy chromosome duplicates, how many DNA molecules are there in the double copy chromosome?
2
261
If the DNA content of the single copy chromosome is x, what is the DNA content of the double copy chromosome?
2 pg, x= 2 chromosomes so 4 chromatids if duplicate, 4 pg
262
What are kinetochores?
A disc shaped protein structure associated with duplicated chromatids that attach chromosomes to spindle microtubules during cell division
263
What are kinetochore microtubules?
Protein complexes that attach chromosomes to microtubules of the mitotic spindle
264
What are somatic cells?
Non reproductive
2 chromosomes (2n, diploid)
265
What are gamete cells?
Half as many chromosomes as somatic cells (haploid, n)
266
How many sets of chromosomes are there in a somatic cell?
2
267
How many sets of chromosomes are there in a gamete cell?
1
268
What are two types of gametes in humans?
Sperm
Egg
269
What is the female gamete?
Egg
270
What is the male gamete?
Sperm
271
What is the cell cycle?
Orderly set of stages that occur between the time a cell divides and the time the resulting daughter cells divide
272
What are the two major stages of the cell cycle?
Interphase
Mitotic phase
273
What are the three stages of interphase?
G1
S
G2
274
What are the two stages of mitotic phase?
Mitosis
Cytokinesis
275
How many ATP are made from fermentation from 40?
80
276
Photosystems work to make ATP and electrons don’t return and are reduced from what?
NADP to NADPH
277
P680=?
Ps2
278
RuBisCO at low CO2 _____.
Has a low affinity for CO2
279
PEP Carboxylase at low CO2 _____.
Has a high affinity for CO2
280
How many chromosomes does a human somatic cell have?
46
281
S S
Two single (x)
282
X X
Two double (2x)
283
What is the longest stage in the cell cycle?
Interphase
284
In what stage of interphase are cellular components duplicated except DNA?
G1
285
In what stage of interphase is DNA doubled?
S
286
In what stage of interphase do cells prepare for mitosis and double check the duplicated DNA for errors and makes repairs if needed?
G2
287
In what stage of interphase are centrosomes duplicated?
S
288
Mitosis
Division of the nucleus
289
Cytokinesis
Division of the cytoplasm
290
In mitosis, daughter cells yield _____ number of chromosomes with that of the parent.
Same
291
What type of cell divides by mitosis?
Somatic
292
What are the phases of mitosis?
Prophase
Prometaphase
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telephase
293
Describe the events in prophase.
Chromosomes condense and appear as two sister chromatids
Spindle fiber begins to form
Nuclear envelope breaks down
Centrioles move to opposite poles
294
Describe the events in prometaphase.
Chromosomes are attached to microtubules
Chromosomes begin to move to center of the cell- congression
295
Describe the events in metaphase.
Longest phase
Chromosomes line up
Chromosomes attached to opposite poles and are under tension
296
Describe the events in anaphase.
Shortest phase
Cohesion proteins are cleaved
Sister chromatids separate and move to opposite ends of
297
Describe the events in telephase.
Two daughter nuclei are formed
Nuclear membranes form, spindle fiber disappears, cytokinesis occurs
Chromosomes become less condensed
Mitosis is complete
298
Summary of mitosis
P: pair up
M: meet in the middle
A: apart they go
T: two new cells
299
Describe cytokinesis in animals.
Cleavage furrow
Cell plate inward
300
Describe cytokinesis in plants.
Cell plate outward
301
How do prokaryotes reproduce?
Binary fission
302
Binary fission
Cell splits into two duplicates in first stage
No cleavage furrow, just septum pinching
303
What are they checkpoints in the cell cycle?
G1
G2
M
304
G1 and G2 checkpoints are in what stage of the cell cycle?
Interphase
305
M phase checkpoint is in what stage of the cell cycle?
Metaphase
306
What are the functions of G1 checkpoint?
Decides if cell should divide
Makes sure cell is large enough to divide
Enough nutrients for daughter cells
307
What are the functions of the G2 checkpoint?
Makes sure DNA replication in the S phase has been completed
Check to see if DNA is repaired
Triggers start of mitosis
308
What are the functions of the M checkpoint?
Occurs during metaphase
Checks to see if spindle fibers have formed and attached correctly to chromosomes
309
What are the two proteins involved in the control of the cell cycle?
Cycling
Cyclin dependent kinases (Cdks)
310
At what stage in the cell cycle are Cdks activity and cycling concentration high?
G1-S
311
What will happen if the checkpoints fail?
There will be an over proliferation of _____ which may become _____.
The faulty checkpoints make the cell _____ to check:
Abnormal cells
Cancerous
Unable
If the DNA replication was complete and properly replicated
If mutation in the DNA was repaired
312
What is cancer?
Unrestrained uncontrolled growth of cells
313
What can cause cancer?
Failure of cell cycle control
314
What are the two types of genes that can disturb the cell cycle when they are mutated?
Tumor suppressor
Proto oncogenes
315
What are pro oncogenes?
Cells that control cell growth, division, and death and when mutated they can lead to cancer
Needed to grow and survive
316
Describe the functions of p53 protein.
Plays a key role in G1 checkpoint
Monitors integrity of DNA
317
What happens if p53 protein is mutated?
If DNA is damaged, cell division is stopped and repairs damaged enzymes
If DNA damage is irreparable, p53 tells cell to kill itself
P53 is absent or damaged in many cancerous cells
318
Transformation
Process in which a normal cell is changed to a cancerous cell
319
Tumors
Masses of abnormal cells made from cancer cells within normal tissues
320
Benign
Stays still
321
Malignant
Spreads/ metastasize
