Ch01 Flashcards
Neuroanatomy and Research Methods
1
Q
The central nervous system (CNS) consists of?
A
The brain and spinal cord
2
Q
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) includes?
A
all other parts of the nervous system outside the brain and spinal cord.
3
Q
The nervous system is made of?
A
cells: Neurons and Glia
4
Q
Neurons have four functional zones. What are they?
A
- Input-Dendrites: Receive information from other cells.
- Integration-The cell body (soma): integrate the information it receives
- Conduction: A single axon (or nerve fiber) conducts output information away from the cell body as an electrical impulse.
- Output-Axon terminals: at the end of the axon communicate activity to other cells.
5
Q
Shape of a motor neuron
A
They’re large, have long axons and stimulate muscles.
6
Q
Shape of a sensory neurons
A
various shapes that best respond to specific environmental stimuli, such as light, odor, or touch.
7
Q
Shape of interneurons
A
short axons and analyze input from one set of neurons and communicate with others.
8
Q
Multipolar neurons
A
one axon, many dendrites; most common.
9
Q
Bipolar neurons
A
one axon, one dendrite
10
Q
Unipolar neurons
A
a single extension branches in two directions, forming an input zone and an output zone
11
Q
Neurons communicate through?
A
Synapses
12
Q
Information is transmitted from the ______ neuron to the _______ neuron
A
presynaptic, postsynaptic
13
Q
Synapses have three components. What are they?
A
- Presynaptic membrane: on the axon terminal of the presynaptic neuron
- Postsynaptic membrane: on the dendrite or cell body of the postsynaptic neuron
- Synaptic cleft: the gap that separates the membranes.
14
Q
What are synaptic vesicles?
A
small spheres in presynaptic axon terminals that contain a neurotransmitter, a specialized chemical; neurotransmitters are released in response to electrical activity in the axon.
15
Q
What are neurotransmitter receptors?
A
in the postsynaptic membrane are specialized proteins that bind and react to neurotransmitter molecules.
16
Q
What is neuroplasticity?
A
the continual remodeling of neuronal connections.
17
Q
What is the axon hillock (initial segment)
A
A cone shaped area of the cell body that gives rise to the axon
The hillock converts input into electrical signals that travel down the axon to convey information to target cells.
18
Q
Axon collateral
A
A branch of an axon that also ends in terminals.
19
Q
Axonal transport
A
the bidirectional movement of materials within an axon.
20
Q
What are glial cells? What do they do?
A
Assist neuronal activity by providing raw materials, chemical signals, and structure and also participate in information processing.
21
Q
Two types of glia wrap around axons to provide a fatty insulation layer called myelin. What are these two types?
A
Oligodendrocytes: form the myelin sheaths in the brain and spinal cord.
Schwann cells: provide myeling to neurons outside the brain/spinal cord
22
Q
What are the nodes of ranvier
A
gaps between segments of myelin where the axon is exposed.
23
Q
Astrocytes are what types of cell?
A
Glial
glial= glue
24
Q
What do astrocytes look like? What do they do?
A
They’re star shaped cells with many processes that stretch around and between neurons (enwrapping synapses) and/or between neurons and blood vessels; they shuttle nutrients and oxygen from blood to the neurons being part of the
BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER
Astro=Star
Cyte=cell
25
Microglial cells are?
tiny, mobile cells that remove debris from injured or dead cells.
26
How heavy is the human brain?
three pounds
27
About how many neurons does the brain contain?
86 billion
28
Afferent pathway/nerve
carries information into a region of interest.
29
Efferent pathway/nerve
carries information away from a region of interest.
30
What are the two types of brain tissue?
1. Gray matter: contains more cell bodies and dendrites, which lack myelin
2.White matter: consists mostly of axons with white myelin sheaths
31
What does the brain develop from?
The neural tube, which grows into three subdivisions.
32
The brain develops from the neural tube, which grows into three subdivisions. What are the three subdivisions?
1. The forebrain
2. Midbrain
3. Hindbrain
33
The forebrain develops into?
The telencephalon and diencephalon
telencephalon= end brain
34
The hindbrain develops into?
Cerebellum= little brain
pons= bridge
medulla= marrow
35
The brainstem refers to which structures?
midbrain, pons, and medulla combined.
36
The brain has how many hemispheres?
two!
37
What is the outermost convoluted layer of the brain?
The cerebral cortex
38
The cortex has?
Gyri (ridged or raised portions) and Sulci (furrows)
39
Four lobes of the cerebral hemisphere and where they are?
Frontal: Most anterior region
Parietal: Lies between the frontal and occipital lobes
Occipital: posterior region, visual processing
Temporal: lateral region, auditory processing
40
What is the sylvian fissure?
the boundary of the temporal lobe.
41
What is the central sulcus?
It divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe.
42
What is the corpus callosum?
A bundle of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
43
What is the precentral gyrus?
In the frontal lobe, important for motor control.
44
What is the postcentral gyrus?
A strip of cortex behind the central sulcus, in the parietal lobe, important for somato sensation (e.g., touch)
45
Parts of the frontal lobe and what they do
motor cortex: found on the precentral gyrus controls voluntary movement
Broca's area: is important for speech production
Prefrontal cortex: involved in planning, impulse control, and decision making
46
What happened to Phineas Gage?
Had a huge metal bar go through his head (frontal cortex)
47
Psychosurgery is meant to treat?
Cognitive and emotional disorders.
48
Lobotomy is?
the surgical destruction of the prefrontal cortex
49
Parietal lobe
Important for body sensations, attention, perception, and spatial localization
50
Primary somatosensory cortex
on the postcentral gyrus processes skin senses, body position, and movement
51
Parietal association areas
Combine information from body senses and vision
Identify objects by touch, determine the location of the limbs, and locate objects in space.
52
Posterior parietal cortex
damage causes neglect
53
Temporal lobes are separated from frontal and by parietal by?
the lateral fissures
54
Temporal lobes contain
Primary auditory cortex.
the auditory cortex, language, auditory and visual association areas
-Wernicke's area
- Inferior temporal cortex
55
Wernicke's area
Involved in language comprehension and production
Damage results in meaningless speech and poor comprehension of written and spoken communication
56
Inferior temporal cortex is
concerned with visual identification (fusiform gyrus)
Damage causes difficulty in recognizing objects and familiar faces.
57
Occipital lobe is where
Posterior
58
Parts of the occipital lobe
Primary visual cortex: contains a map of visual space
Secondary visual areas: that process individual components of a scene: color, movement, and form.
59
Cortical neurons are arranged in how many layers?
six
60
Pyramidal cells are?
the most prominent neurons in the cerebral cortex layer III or V.
61
Cortical columns are where?
Perpendicular to the layers of the cortical neurons which extend the full thickness of the cortex and serve as information processing units.
62
The cortex receives information from?
the thalamus (sensory) and other cortical areas and modulatory signals from monoamine neurons
63
The cortex sends signals to
cortical or subcortical areas (caudate putamen, amygdala, thalamus, brainstem, spinal cord)
64
The basal ganglia are important for what function?
Motor control.
65
What do basal ganglia consist of?
the caudate nucleus, putamen, and globus, pallidus
66
The limbic system includes structures which are important for?
Emotion and learning
67
What are the other structures part of the limbic system?
Amygdala, hippocampus and fornix, cingulate gyrus, olfactory bulb.
68
Tell me about the amygdala
found in the limbic system.
Emotional regulation and perception of odor.
"Almond"
69
Tell me about the Hippocampus and fornix
Found in the limbic system.
Learning.
Hipocampus=sea horse
Fornix= arch/vault
70
Tell me about the cingulate gyrus
Found in the limbic system
Attention.
Cingulate=belt
Gyrus=circle
71
Tell me about the olfactory bulb
Found in the limbic system
Sense of smell
Olfactory= to smell
72
Tell me about the thalamus
Found in the limbic system
A cluster of nuclei that relay sensory information
thalamus= inner chamber
73
Tell me about the hypothalamus
Found in the limbic system
Contains nuclei with many functions; some nuclei produce hormones, control the pituitary gland
hypo=under
thalamus=chamber
74
Tell me about the superior colliculi
Found in the midbrain
Visual processing
Superior= above
Colliculi= small bump
75
Tell me about the inferior colliculi
Found in the midbrain
Auditory processing
Inferior=below
colliculi=small bump
76
Tell me about the substantia nigra
Found in the Midbrain
DA- part of the basal ganglia- motor function
Substantia= substance or essence
77
Tell me about the ventral tegmental area
Found in the midbrain
Reward circuit
Ventral= Belly
Tegmental= covering
78
Tell me about the reticular formation
Found in the midbrain
Involved with arousal and sleep
Reticular= small net
79
Tell me about the periaqueductal gray
Found in the midbrain
Involved with arousal and sleep
peri= around/encompassing
aqueduct= water
(basically the gray matter that surrounds the aqueduct of sylvius in the midbrain)
80
Tell me about the pons
Found in the brainstem
Contains sensory and motor nuclei; origin of some cranial nerves
pons= bridge
81
Tell me about the medulla
Found in the brainstem
Marks transition from brain to spinal cord; drives essential processes such as respiration and heart rate; origin of some cranial nerves
Medulla= marrow
82
Tell me about the cerebellum
Found in the brainstem/attached to it
Attached to the brainstem. Crucial for motor coordination and control; participates in some types of learning.
Cerebellum= little brain
83
Tell me about the spinal cord
Structure that carries sensory information to the brain, and motor commands to the muscles and organs
84
What are the three meningeal layers?
1. Dura mater: tough outermost layer
dura=hard
mater= mother
2.Pia mater: Delicate innermost layer
3. Arachnoid membrane: lies between the other two; filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
85
Meningitis is?
and acute infection of the meninges
86
What are meningiomas?
tumors formed in the meninges.
87
What is the ventricular system?
A series of chambers filled with CSF (deep)
88
Tell me about the lateral ventricle
extends into all four lobes and is lined with the choroid plexus which is a membrane that produces CSF
Ventricle: belly/stomach/cavity
choroid=enclosed membrane (sort of)
Plexus: to braid (like intersected)
89
CSF flows into the ____ ventricle at the midline, then into the _____ ventricle where it exits to circulate over the _____ and _____ _____.
Flows into the third ventricle
then the fourth ventricle
over the brain and spinal cord
90
What is a glymphatic system?
Allows the brain to drain waste in CSF derived fluids during sleep
91
Obstruction of normal CSF flow results in what medical issue?
Hydrocephalus
hydro= water
cephalus= head
Its an accumulation of fluid in ventricles. In babies, the pressure remains normal and the brain/skull enlarge; when the skull cannot expand, the pressure increases and starts damaging the brain.
92
Besides CSF, the brain depends on an ample supply of oxygenated blood from what?
Cerebral arteries.
93
Nutrients and oxygen reach neurons passing through the?
Blood brain barrier.
94
What are strokes caused by?
The rupture (hemorrhage) or blockage of blood vessels (ischemia) leading to insufficient oxygen supply to a part of the brain and subsequent destruction.
95
Common warning signs of a stroke
- Sudden numbness or weakness
- altered vision
- dizziness
- severe headache
- confusion or difficulty speaking
96
Tell me about motor nerves
in the peripheral nervous system (PNS)
Transmit information from the spinal cord and brain to muscles and glands.
97
Tell me about sensory nerves
Found in the peripheral nervous (PNS)
Convey information from the body to the CNS.
98
The various nerves of the body are divided into two distinct systems. What are the two systems?
1. Somatic nervous system
2. Autonomic nervous system
99
Tell me about the somatic nervous system
Nerves that interconnect the brain and the major muscles and sensory systems of the body
somatic= body
100
Tell me about the autonomic nervous system
nerves that connect to the viscera (internal organs)
101
The nerves of the somatic nervous system form two anatomical groups. What are they?
1. Cranial nerves
2. Spinal nerves
102
Tell me about cranial nerves.
12 pairs. They innervate the head, neck, and visceral organs directly from the brain.
103
Tell me about spinal nerves.
31 pairs. Bidirectionally connect the spinal cord to skin, muscles, visceral organs (contain a group of motor fibers that project from the spinal cord and a group of sensory fibers that enter the spinal cord).
104
Cranial nerves.
12 pairs
three being exclusively sensory
Olfactory (I) smell
Optic (II) vision
Vestibulocochlear (VIII) hearing and balance
five are motor pathways from the brain
Oculomotor (III) eye movement
Trochlear (IV) eye movement
abducens (VI) eye movement
Spinal accessory (XII) neck muscles
Hypoglossal (XII) tongue
four have sensory and motor branches
trigeminal (V) facial sensation, chewing muscles
facial (VII) taste sensation, facial muscles
Glossopharyngeal (IX) throat sensation, throat muscles
Vagus (X) innervates the heart, liver, and intestines.
105
Spinal nerves
31 pairs bidirectionally connect the spinal cord to skin, muscles, visceral organs (contain a group of motor fibers that project from the spinal cord and a group of sensory fibers that enter the spinal cord).
Cervical (neck) 8
Thoracic (trunk) 12
Lumbar (lower back) 5
Sacral (pelvic) 5
Coccygeal (bottom) 1
106
The autonomic nervous system is the main system for?
controlling the body's organs.
107
What are the two major divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
sympathetic and parasympathetic.
The sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems have different effects on organs due to different neurotransmitters and their receptors.
108
Sympathetic nervous system consists of
a chain of sympathetic ganglia adjacent to the spinal cord and fibers innervating organs.
Sympathetic innervation prepares the body for action- the "fight or flight" response.
109
The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body
relax and recuperate Parasympathetic neurons extend longer distances from the CNS to the parasympathetic ganglia
110
Theories help
to integrate and interpret diverse observation and generate testable hypotheses.
111
Correlation studies
measure how closely the body and behavior measures co-vary
112
Somatic intervention studies
manipulating the body may affect behavior.
113
Behavioral intervention studies
manipulating the behavior may affect the body (and the brain).
114
Correlation
compares how much a body measure varies with a behavioral measure
- if one measure goes up while the other goes down, there is a negative correlation.
- if both measures increase or decrease together, there is a positive correlation.
A CORRELATION EXPERIMENT MAY SHOW AN ASSOCIATION BETWEEN VARIABLES, BUT CANNOT PROVE CAUSALITY.
115
If someone wants to get away from correlations and determining causation in psychology and other sciences, this must be done through
Controlled experiments.
116
Independent variable
the one being manipulated
117
Dependendent variable
what is measured
118
extraneous variables
uncontrolled influences
119
Experimental group
typically testing the variable of interest that is being manipulated to determine causation
120
The control group
receives no treatment or test so that the experimental group will have something for comparison.
121
Within subjects experiment
the control group is the same set of subjects tested before alteration or treatment.
122
between subjects experiment
the experimental group is compared to a separate control group that has been treated identically except for the manipulation.
123
Histology is the study of?
tissues
124
How an neuron cell bodies be visualized?
using Nissl Stains
125
What is transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
it briefly stimulates discrete cortical regions. Scientists can then record observed changes in behavior.
126
What is magnetoencephalography (MEG)
measures the tiny magnetic fields given off by active neurons during cognitive processing.
127
Golgi stains
completely label only a few neurons.
128
tract tracers help?
visualize neural pathways.
129
computerized axial tomography
measures x-ray absorption at several positions around the head.
130
A CT scan generates?
an anatomical map of the brain based on tissue density.
