ch4: development Flashcards
1
Q
development
A
growth and change over time, including changes that are progressive (learning to walk or talk) and regressive (declines in cognitive functioning with age)
2
Q
teratogens
A
environmental substances or agents that negatively impact the developing organism during gestation, particularly during the period of the pregnancy (impacts physical development and cognitive functioning)
3
Q
what are some commonly known teratogens
A
alcohol, smoking, drugs, and certain medications
4
Q
period of the zygote
A
during prenatal development, the time from conception until about two weeks later. ends when the blastocyst implants into the uterine lining (driven by genetic factors)
5
Q
what is the primary characteristic of the period of the zygote
A
rapid cell division, the cells divide exponentially, from 2 to 4 to 16 to 256, and as cells divide, the centre of the cell becomes hollow
6
Q
blastocyst
A
the hollowed-out ball of cells that implants into the uterine wall, to become the developing organism and its support system
7
Q
ectopic pregnancy
A
a pregnancy that results from the implantation of the blastocyst into one of the fallopian tubes instead of uterine wall (mother and the zygote are at risk)
8
Q
what is the difference between uterus and fallopian tubes that makes ectopic pregnancy risky
A
unlike the uterus that can expand and contract to accommodate and expel the fetus, the fallopian tubes do not have this ability. if the pregnancy is not terminated, there is a risk of rupturing fallopian tube, leading to death
9
Q
monozygotic twins
A
“identical twins”, they have 100% shared genetics. it occurs when one egg was fertilized by one sperm and splits into two separate cells with identical DNA (almost identical genetic information, and always the same sex)
10
Q
dizygotic twins
A
“fraternal twins / non-identical twins”, occurs when in the rare case of woman’s ovaries releasing more than one egg at a time, two eggs are each fertilized by separate sperm cells. approx sharing 50% of their genetic information (may be of diff sexes, similar to other siblings born years apart)
11
Q
the period of the embryo
A
during prenatal development, from when blastocysts implants into the uterine lining to about eight weeks after conception, during which teratogens are most impactful
12
Q
what is the primary characteristic of the period of the embryo
A
major developmental advances, all of the major organs and systems of the body undergo significant development during this stage
13
Q
cephalocaudal principle of development
A
the principle indicating that development occurs from the head to the tail during prenatal development (changes occur in the brain and the head before changes in the extremities)
14
Q
proximodistal principles of development
A
during gestation, development proceeds from the internal organs outward towards the extremities (first centrally located features, like heart or lungs, then more peripheral features, like hands or fingers)
15
Q
what is the difference between cephalocaudal and proximodistal principles of development
A
the cephalocaudal principle emphasizes development from head to tail, while the proximodistal principle emphasizes development from the centre of the body outward
16
Q
what is accomplished by the end of the period of the embryo
A
all major bodily structures are formed, but the embryo cannot survive outside of the uterine environment
17
Q
period of the fetus
A
from nine weeks after conception to birth, classified as a period of growth and minor refinements (final period of prenatal development)
18
Q
what are the characteristics of the period of the fetus
A
- refinements and finishing touches
- gains weight and moves into the head-down position preferred for childbirth
- fetal brains develop the sulci and gyri
- fetus learn from the world outside the uterine environment
- they can discriminate between the voice of their mother and unfamiliar woman
- pregnant ppl can recognize how their fetuses behave, which may be indicators as to how infants would behave after birth
19
Q
what are the three factors associated with teratogens that adds to the complexity of effects of teratogens on prenatal development
A
- dose: how much exposure a pregnant person had to a teratogen
- timing: when in gestation the teratogen was experienced
- cumulative effects: the possibility that the pregnant person may have been exposed to more than one teratogen and the effects combined may be difficult to disentangle
20
Q
which method is most commonly used to determine teratogens on pregnant people
A
correlational research and some focuses on non-human animal models
21
Q
we know that only thru experiments can we determine causation, but why is it unethical to conduct experiment on pregnant people to determine possible teratogens
A
It is unethical to randomly assign pregnant women to an experimental condition (e.g., exposure to teratogens) that might negatively impact their developing infant.
22
Q
teratogens have the most negative effect during which prenatal stage
A
the period of the embryo because during this stage, the most major bodily structures are being formed, and exposure to harmful environmental agents can cause significant negative effects
23
Q
how do teratogens affect the other two stages
A
exerts less influence during the period of the zygote (cellular division is largely constrained by biology) and the period of fetus (less impact on formation of major bodily structures during this stage but have impacts on brain development and cognitive functioning)
24
Q
fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD)
A
occurs to infants who have been exposed to alcohol during pregnancy, represents a range of conditions associated with being exposed to alcohol prenatally, most significant of which is fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
25
how does alcohol effect the developing infant
damage to internal organs, altered physical characteristics, and cognitive impairments
26
what is thalidomide
prescription medication used during the 1960s to alleviate the symptoms of morning sickness experienced by pregnant people, it reduces sensations of nausea but at the cost of the health of the developing infant
27
what is the effect of thalidomide on developing infant
infants were born with shortened or malformed limbs as thalidomide is commonly prescribed during the period of the embryo, during which major structures are formed
28
zika virus
- transmitted by mosquitoes or sexual contact with the infected, associated with microcephaly (smaller infant head sizes)
- pregnant individual experience rash, itchy skin, and joint pain
- significant abnormalities for infants, including stillbirth, microcephaly is not the outcome but part of the series of abnormalities (restricted growth in utero and alterations in the developing brain)
29
long term effects of Zika virus on children
motor impairments, epilepsy, microcephaly was maintained in the majority of the older children as well
30
how does microcephaly affect everyday behaviour
associated with poorer scores on a standardized developmental assessment of cognitive, language, and motor functioning, it is also indicated that severity of microcephaly is related to greater seizure severity
31
what are some significant gains experienced by infants over the first three years of life
- motor development (control over both large muscle groups for walking and small muscle groups for grasping)
- language development (producing their first word around 12 months of age)
- cognitive development (long term memory for past events by 20 months of age)
- social development (forming significant personal connections or attachments to caregivers over the first two years)
32
cognitive development
refers to how the brain develops and how we gain cognitive skills such as information processing, problem solving, language learning, etc
33
Jean Piaget's theory on cognitive development
- focus on addressing the manner in which infants and children construct their knowledge
- children are active contributors to their own learning, they construct their own knowledge (constructivist theoretical perspective)
- also stated that growth of cognitive structures occurs when encountering conflicting information in the world
34
through which processes does modification of cognitive structures occur
assimilation and accommodation (are fluid and changes over time to account for newly learned information)
35
assimilation
the incorporation of new information into existing cognitive structures, encountering new information that is similar to what is stored in the existing cognitive structures, which is then added to the existing cognitive structures
36
accommodation
the creation of new cognitive structures to house new information that does not fit elsewhere
37
equilibration
states in which cognitive structures agree with external realities (agreement between what children see in the world and the reality that exists in their minds)
38
disequilibration
cognitive structures do not agree with external realities (what exists in the outside world is not represented in the created cognitive structures)
39
what happens when disequilibration occurs
cognitive structures must be modified thru assimilation and accommodation to allow greater agreements and maintain equilibration
40
what are the four major stages of cognitive development children progress through
the sensorimotor period, the preoperational period, and the concrete operational period occur during infancy and childhood. the formal operational period occurs in adolescence (no skipping stages, must progress through each stage in order) (children in diff stages think very differently, and some may never achieve the formal operational stage)
41
sensorimotor period
first stage of cognitive development, lasting from birth to age 2. characterized by learning that occurs through a child's sensory and motor interactions with the physical environment (have six substages)
42
first substage of sensorimotor period
birth to 1 month, infants learn from the world using reflexes
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second substage of sensorimotor period
1 to 4 months, infants engage in primary circular reactions, or repeated actions on their own bodies
44
third substage of sensorimotor period
4 to 8 months, infants engage in secondary circular reactions on objects outside of their bodies
45
fourth substage of sensorimotor period
8 to 12 months, object permanence is achieved, infants combine secondary circular reactions so they can make a sequence of events come to pass (ex. finding toys hidden under a cloth)
46
fifth substage of sensorimotor period
12 to 18 months, children engage in tertiary circular reactions as they experiment with different items in various contexts, "little scientists"
47
sixth substage of sensorimotor period
18 to 24 months, children engage in mental representation, they can remember and act on past experiences
48
primary circular reactions
infants learn about the world by repeatedly engaging in actions on their own bodies (occurs in second substage) (they're primary because they are focused on the infant's own body and circular because behaviours are repeated)
49
secondary circular reactions
infants learn about the world by repeatedly engaging in actions outside their own bodies (occurs in third substage) (ex. dropping toys off the side of their chairs
50
object permanence
an understanding that objects and individuals continue to exist even if they cannot be seen, a development that occurs around 9 months of age
51
the A-not-B task
indicates that although infants show some rudimentary memory abilities, they must make significant strides to reach the level of cognitive competency experienced by older children and adults (infants experience difficulty shifting their attention when objects are first hidden at one location then moved to another)
52
tertiary circular reactions
"little scientists", infants actively explore the world using different combinations of items to see how these changes affect their observed outcomes (occurs in the fifth substage)
53
mental representation
infants remember and re-enact situations and events that happened previously without any ongoing perceptual supports (occurs in the sixth substage)
54
preoperational period
second stage of cognitive development, occurs from ages 2 to 7. marked by a child's increasing ability to use symbols and engage in logical thinking
55
preoperational period is further divided into which two substages
- preconceptual thinking: from ages 2 to 4
- intuitive thinking: from ages 4 to 7
56
symbolic thinking
significant growth during the preoperational period, children become more adept at using language to convey their thoughts and feelings, and readily engage in pretend play
57
what are some difficulties children experience during the preoperational period
animism, egocentrism, and conservation tasks
58
animism
preschooler beliefs that stuffed toys and other inanimate objects have feelings
59
egocentrism
difficulty of children in adopting the perspective of another individual, as seen in children aged two to seven in Piaget's model (studied egocentrism using the three mountains problem)
60
why do children struggle with conservation tasks
they do not yet realize that certain physical qualities of an object remain unchanged despite changes to its physical appearance (tasks may focus on liquid, mass, number, or length)
61
concrete operational period
third stage of cognitive development, lasting from ages 7 to 11, marked by increased cognitive ability in reasoning about concrete events (limited to the here and now in their thinking, thinking about hypothetical situations is difficult)
62
why do children succeed at conservation tasks during the concrete operational period
children understand three transformative principles: identity, compensation, and inversion
63
identity
objects remain what they are even when they are manipulated
64
compensation
occurs when children recognize that the imposed changes cancel each other out. one change to an object is negated by an opposing change to that object, the object remains in its initial state after these opposite changes
65
inversion
children realize that each of the processes imposed in conservation tasks is easily reversible
66
Lev Vygotsky's sociocultural theory
- portrayed cognitive development as a continuous process (as opposed to Piaget's discontinuous progress) that was intimately linked to the context in which children grew up. he viewed adults as central to promoting cognitive development
- how broader social influences impact cognitive development (importance of psychological tools in shaping the way individuals structure their thinking)
67
scaffold
cognitive support offered by a teacher to a learner that helps the latter acquire new skills or knowledge, support is withdrawn once the learner can perform the skill on their own
68
what is the purpose of providing cognitive scaffolding
the assistance adults provide allows children to achieve more than they would be able to achieve by themselves
69
zone of proximal development
the distance between what a child can accomplish alone and what a child can accomplish with some assistance
70
according to Vygotsky, what is the most important psychological tool and why
language, it is embedded in our thoughts and we often use language (even if only internally as inner speech) to regulate our behaviour and solve difficult problems
71
egocentric speech
children talk to themselves out loud to help them solve difficult problems, which is then internalized over time and become silent inner speech
72
evidence of infants developing social understanding?
infants show preferences for their mother's voice shortly after birth relative to other female stranger or their father's voice, they also quickly learn to engage in social interactions with others
73
the still face paradigm
used to evaluate infants' emerging understanding of social relationships. infant is seated across from the mother, who is at first actively engaging the infant, then is instructed to adopt a still face (neutral emotion and no response) to examine the infant's reaction. the infants often exhibit distress
74
how does covering portions of our faces affect the accuracy of identifying emotions?
researches indicates that children aged 7 to 13 years accurately identified emotional expressions even when portions of faces were covered. similar experiment were conducted on younger children, and the findings suggest that mask wearing impairs emotion recognition to a greater extent in young children relative to older children and adults (also suggest that we rely on other cues, situational or environmental factors, to identify emotional expressions)
75
attachment
refers to the manner in which we interact with our primary caregivers as infants and with our romantic partners as adults
76
what's Konrad Lorenz discovery
found that goslings followed the first large moving object they saw immediately after hatching and showed a preference for this object
77
imprinting
suggests that young organisms may be biologically predisposed to form relationships with the adults of their species
78
what is the purpose of developing early attachment
early attachment is based on biological underpinning and survival of the mammalian species
79
Harry Harlow's experiments on the hypothesis of early attachment
he conducted experiments with non-human primates to examine whether attachment to a mother was based on sustenance or comfort. suggested that infant monkeys are born with an internal need to cling to a soft body (cloth mother) and this drive is just as powerful as other biological drives (hunger)
80
sustenance
the provision of food
81
comfort
the provision of warmth and the ability of the mother to serve as a secure base
82
John Bowlby
- one of the first psychologists to theorize about attachment relationships in infancy
- believed that mammals develop attachment bonds as a means of promoting their survival and, without them, infants would perish due to a lack of food or protection
83
the Strange Situation paradigm
- developed by Mary Ainsworth, allowed researchers to systematically explore the attachment relationships infants develop with their primary caregivers, and some of the factors that contribute to the emergence of attachment relationships
- a 21-minute observational assessment that places an infant, mother, and a stranger in eight situations, with a focus on how infants behave in different situations as well as how infants and mothers interact when alone and when in presence of the stranger
84
what are the three primary attachment classifications identified by Ainsworth
securely attached, insecure-resistant, and insecure-avoidant
85
securely attached
an attachment style of infants and adults characterized by emotional closeness and a healthy level of independence and exploration (distressed when mother left but happy again when she came back)
86
insecure-resistant
an attachment style of infants characterized by being clingy and resisted separation from their caregivers, may be born out of inconsistent parental responsiveness (fearful of the stranger when mother left and engage in additional contact-maintaining behaviour once the mother reappeared)
87
insecure-avoidant
an attachment style of infants characterized by avoidance of a primary caregiver upon reunion after separation, may be born of out parental disengagement with the infant (minimal anxiety and distress when left alone with the stranger, and actively avoiding the mother when she reappeared)
88
disorganized attachment
a fourth attachment classification that has been recently identified. an attachment style of infants characterized by extreme fear and dissociation in wanting to both approach and avoid an attachment figure, may be born out of parent abuse
89
Heinz dilemma
in Lawrence Kohlberg's theory of moral development, a vignette (short story) presenting a moral dilemma to assess moral reasoning
90
what are the three primary stages of moral reasoning in Kohlberg's theory of moral development
pre-conventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality
91
pre-conventional morality
the first stage of morality in which children think of morality in terms of punishments and rewards
92
conventional morality
the second stage of morality in which a child places value on social conventions, social order, and being viewed as "good" or "bad" by others (conforming to societal pressures)
93
post-conventional morality
the final stage of morality in which someone bases moral decisions on abstract principles instead of on societal expectations or the judgment of others (develop their own ethical principles)
94
formal operational period
the fourth stage of cognitive development, starting approx age 12 (some may never achieve this level). marked by the ability to think abstractly and consider hypothetical situations
95
executive functions
higher-order cognitive processes that, in many ways, make us human, including abilities related to planning for the future, controlling impulses, mentally manipulating and working with information, switching between tasks with distinct but similar response demands, and making complex decisions
96
which brain region undergoes significant development in adolescence?
the prefrontal cortex experience synaptic pruning and myelination during adolescence
97
correlation between quality of social contexts and likelihood of reoffending for adolescence
positive social contexts are associated with lower rates of reoffending by juveniles with better impulse control
98
adolescent egocentrism
adolescent's perception that others are focused on them, their feelings and actions (聚光燈效應）
99
Elkind's take on adolescent egocentrism
suggested that individuals differentially focus on what is of interest to themselves over what is likely of interest to others. adolescent egocentrism is characterized in part by an imaginary audience, in which they think that everyone is focused on them, and personal fable, in which they think of themselves as unique and invulnerable to risky situations
100
what are the four identity statuses developed by James Marcia
foreclosed identity, identity diffusion, psychosocial moratorium, and identity achievement
101
foreclosed identity
individuals who have prematurely decided who they are, likely conforming to the ideas of or expectations set by others (high commitment and low exploration, they might take the path of least resistance)
102
identity diffusion
individuals who have not made any decisions or commitments about their identities (low commitment and exploration, they might avoid making decisions and leave everything undecided)
103
psychosocial moratorium
those who are exploring various options (low commitment and high exploration, they might take extended journeys to find themselves before making commitments)
104
identity achievement
those who have completed their identity crisis and have committed to who they believe themselves to be (high commitment and exploration, they might gather information on lots of career paths before committing)
105
psychoanalytic approach on parent-adolescent relationship
suggests that emerging peer relationships compensate for changes in parent-adolescent relationships
106
socialization model's perspective on parent-adolescent relationship
suggest that peers serve as competition for parents
107
cognitive model's perspective on parent-adolescent relationship
suggest that peers provide novel input and serve to complement parent-adolescent relationships
108
which relationship is most important when considering predictors of good adolescent mental health and well-being
parent-adolescent relationships may be crucial to well-being in the teenage years
109
describe the negative correlation between age and cognitive performance around age 18 to 50
increased age is associated with poorer performance on measure of fluid intelligence (speed of processing and reasoning), but stable performance on measures of crystallized intelligence (vocab or concrete information learned over time)
110
how can the elders improve fluid intelligence
by engaging in stimulating cognitive activities over 10 to 12 weeks (mental workouts yield positive effects)
111
dementia
deterioration of brain function that negatively impacts cognitive processes (memory, language and judgment) and includes a range of diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Lewy body disease, and Parkinson's disease
112
Alzheimer's disease
a disease marked by the gradual onset of impairment in cognitive functions of memory, reasoning, and judgment (most common forms of dementia), along with increased confusion and depression that increasingly complicates the completion of activities for daily living
113
preventions from Alzheimer's disease
even though the likelihood of developing this disease is due to genetic makeup, participating in various kinds of stimulating environments, such as having a strong social network, stay intellectually engaged, and being physically active, or even 10 minutes of light exercise impact memory performance in young adults
114
social clock
cultural norms and societal expectations about the timing of key life events such as marriage, having children, and retiring
115
emerging adulthood
a period of development ranging from the late teens to the mid-20s marked by identity exploration, instability, self-focus, and exploring possibilities for one's life
116
when was the association between early and later attachment classifications studied
the 1980s, by psychologists Cindy Hazan and Phil Shaver noticed the similarities between infant-caregiver attachment and adult romantic relationships and sought to explore the connection
117
what are the three attachment styles in adults that parallel those observed in infants
using the Adult Attachment Interview technique, Mary Main identified secure or autonomous, anxious or preoccupied, and avoidant or dismissive (a fourth one for individuals whose attachments can't be determined on the collected data)
118
secure or autonomous attachment style
like securely attached infants, react to relationships in an even and positive manner. they are comfortable and confident in their ability to become emotionally close to others, and enjoy a balance of closeness and independence
119
anxious or preoccupied attachment style
parallels the insecure-resistant style in infants. they tend to feel uncomfortable with independence and strive for constant intimacy and closeness. they are often unable to find romantic partners willing to react similarly due to their high levels of relationship needs
120
avoidant or dismissive attachment style
parallels the avoidant attachment classification in infants. they are perfectly comfortable without close emotional relationships, and tend to believe that close relationships will compromise their independence so they often avoid such relationships altogether
121
unhappy marriage's impact on one's health
troubled marriages can directly impact health and mortality by interacting with our cardiovascular, endocrine, and immune systems
122
how does having a baby impact the marriage
marital satisfaction generally decreases after the birth of a child, but researches indicate that parenthood is positively related to happiness, meaning in life, and positive emotion
123
what factors are associated with better adjustment to retirement
having better psychological health, higher income, and being married
124
socioemotional selectivity theory (SST)
a theory on aging which specifies that one's perception of time impacts selection and pursuit of goals, with younger adults favouring information-related goals and older adults favouring emotion-related goals tied to well-being and relationships (older adults learn to avoid negatively arousing stimuli)
125
bereavement's impact on one's emotional and physical health
increase risky behaviour and impact moral decision making, also taking a toll on physical health (higher rates of disability, hospitalization, medication, and depression)
126
what factors help ease the pain of loss of loved ones
having a strong social support and developing new interests (the loss of loved ones may inspire reflection on the meaningfulness of the event or self-examination)
127
Erik Erikson's eight stages of psychosocial development
beginning in infancy and ending in late adulthood, individuals must conquer each challenges to move forward to the next developmental milestone, whereas those who fail may experience issues associated with that domain across the lifespan
128
trust vs mistrust
- infancy: birth to 2 years
- infants learn to trust their caretakers and the world around them
- if failed, infants develop a sense of mistrust
129
autonomy vs shame and doubt
- early childhood: 2 to 4 years
- children become confident in their ability to make decisions and survive in the world
- if failed, children believe they are unable to make positive decisions on their own
130
initiative vs guilt
- preschool years: 4 to 5 years
- children develop a sense of purpose and initiative
- if failed, children develop a sense of guilt and view themselves as a nuisance to others
131
industry vs inferiority
- school age: 5 to 12 years
- children feel confident in their abilities to achieve goals
- if failed, children feel inferior and may believe they lack the ability to reach their potential
132
identity vs role confusion
- adolescence: 13 to 19 years
- adolescents develop a true sense of self, identity, and purpose
- if failed, adolescents experience role confusion and struggle to recognize where they fit in society
133
intimacy vs isolation
- early adulthood: 20 to 39 years
- adolescents develop a true sense of self, identity and purpose
- if failed, adults may feel isolated and lonely
134
generativity vs stagnation
- middle adulthood: 40 to 64 years
- adults establish a legacy in the world and feel a sense of belonging to the "big picture"
- if failed, adults feel stuck, unfulfilled, and unproductive
135
ego integrity vs despair
- maturity: 65+ years
- adults see themselves as having lived a successful life and will develop integrity and contentment
- if failed, adults may be plagued by the belief that their lives were unproductive and feel despair, depression, and hopelessness
136
how are developmental researches conducted
through longitudinal research (provide unique information about developmental processes, whether growth is characterized by stability or change) and cross-sectional research (children of various ages are tested in the same study, useful for examining age-related change, but not development within the same person over time).
137
difficulties associated with collecting data from children
- neonate have limited motor control, cannot easily communicate their thoughts, feelings, or needs. so developmental psychologists have focused their studies with young ones on reflexive, involuntary, and obligatory behaviour
- researches on children will increase their focus on voluntary behaviours
- combining parent-report and self-report data
138
novelty preference
the preference of infants in looking longer at new information in the environment, as compared to old information
138
habituation prardigms
infants are presented with an interesting stimulus until they habituate to it, or lose interest in it. once they lose interest, they are presented with a new stimulus. if infants notice a difference between the two stimuli, they normally look longer at the new stimulus. the findings suggest that infants remember information about visual stimuli and this memory may inform where they choose to look
138
high amplitude sucking paradigm
infants are given a sterilized pacifier to suck on for a certain period of time. the initial baseline period is used to establish how much infants such on the pacifier in the absence of any outside stimulation. findings suggest that infants preferred listening to speech relative to non-speech
139
theory of mind
an ability that emerges around age 4, which allows people to understand that others have feelings, thoughts, and desires that differ from one's own (identified through the use of false belief paradigms)
140
false belief paradigm
showing a child a box of band-aids and ask the child what he thinks is inside the box. common answer would be "band-aids", but research open to reveal unexpected contents. the child is then asked to think what others think is inside the box, to which comes two types of answer
- those without a theory of mind: others will think there are treats
- those with a theory of mind: they will think that there are band-aids in the box
141
recall memory
the ability to recount specific episodes or events from the past
142
elicited imitation
a three-dimensional behavioural recall task. infants and young children interact with three-dimensional event sequences, items they interact with in the lab differ from those found at home in that the lab-based events can be used to create a sequence of events that they find interesting or entertaining. findings indicates that recall capability are much more sophisticated than Piaget had expected
143
MacArthur-Bates Communicative Development Inventories
widely used battery of language questionnaires
144
Institutional review boards (IRB)
ensure research participants do not experience harm as a result of their involvement and that they experience the potential benefits associated with experimental therapies or other treatments
145
assent
the ability of children to indicate their own willingness to participate in research (research conducted with infants and young children often require the consent of at least one parent)
146
difficulties surrounding experiments conducted on infants and children
researchers may experience issues associated with small sample sizes and homogeneous samples (samples of individuals who are similar to one another), which makes it difficult to generalize or apply their findings to other groups
147
sally-anne task
a classic test used in developmental psychology to assess a child's theory of mind, particularly their understanding of others' beliefs. At 3 years old, children typically struggle with understanding false belief
