Changes in Organising the Army and Recruitment Flashcards
(73 cards)
1
Q
Which bodies were responsible for the army?
A
- The War Office
- The Board of Ordnance
- The commissariat
2
Q
What was the role of the War Office?
A
- It was responsible for the administration of the British Army
3
Q
What was the role of the Board of Ordnance?
A
- It was responsible for the manufacturing of munitions
4
Q
What was the role of the commissariat?
A
- It was responsible for organising transportation and supply of every day items (e.g. food and clothing) for the army
5
Q
What was the regimental system?
A
- How the peacetime army was organised
6
Q
List 2 advantages of the regimental system.
A
- Every serviceman had a home barracks
- It allowed for relatively efficient administration
7
Q
List 2 disadvantages of the regimental system.
A
- It made it difficult to attract new recruits
- The system supported privilege
8
Q
What were 3 reasons why it was difficult for the army to attract new recruits in the 19th century?
A
- Working in a factory paid better
- The idea of spending years in the tropics put men off
- The recruitment of convicted criminals (which had been put to good use in the wars against the French) was unpopular in Victorian England
9
Q
Why was purchasing ranks increasingly unpopular in the 19th century? Give 3 reasons.
A
- It was increasingly viewed with suspicion, especially by the Liberals
- The idea of a meritocracy was becoming more popular, especially after the value of this was seen through continental wars such as the Crimean War where the aristocratic leadership had performed poorly
- The highly professional Prussian officer corps showed that the quality of the British leadership was poor in comparison
10
Q
How well-equipped were troops during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars? Give 3 examples.
A
- Their equipment was of extremely low quality;
- the dye would run from their uniforms
- officers would obtain their own equipment instead of using government-issued equipment
- encounters with the French would have the benefit of being able to obtain their superior equipment
11
Q
How well supplied were troops during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars? What were 3 reasons why?
A
- The food supply was not secure, and soldiers sometimes went hungry because:
- the British were unique in that they did not live off the land, so the Royal Navy was used to supply the army (they were aware of the benefit of keeping the local population on their side)
- looting was therefore punished severely
- as Wellington advanced further, the army moved further away from the coast, and supply lines became stretched
12
Q
How well supplied were troops in the Crimean War? Give an example. How did this compare to the wars with the French?
A
- Soldiers were lacking in equipment, clothing and food
- The greatest threat for British soldiers in the winter of 1854-55 was the cold, hunger and disease
- It showed that the authorities had done little to change after the French wars
13
Q
What were 2 reasons why soldiers were so poorly supplied during the Crimean War?
A
- The supply lines were extremely long; they went through the Black Sea, the Mediterranean and the Atlantic
- The supplies were usually in the Crimea, but local inefficiency prevented them from reaching the front lines
14
Q
What forced there to be a change in the way the army was supplied? How was this addressed?
A
- As the British Empire expanded, the need to send the army to places far away increased
- Therefore, their supplies had to be organised on a much more professional basis
- Much of the reforms of the late 19th century were focused on dealing with this
15
Q
What issue did governments have when it came to recruitment? What were 2 reasons why?
A
- No voters would support a government that introduced conscription
- Conscription was also seen as an unacceptable imposition on the liberties of men
- They therefore had to rely on recruits, and encourage men to sign up (whether or not this was done legally)
16
Q
What were 3 sources of recruits regiments used during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic wars?
A
- Recruiting sergeants
- Criminal courts
- Alcoholics
17
Q
What was another source of recruits for the British army? How large of an impact did this have? How were they organised?
A
- Since British kings were also rulers of Hanover, many Hanoverians joined the army
- Other foreigners, such as French deserters, also joined
- They formed the King’s German Legion
- In 1813 they made up one-fifth of the army
18
Q
Giving 4 details, describe the work of recruiting sergeants.
A
- Impressment into the army was illegal after 1780, so they had to use persuasion
- This included plying possible recruits with alcohol in order to get them to physically accept the king’s shilling, which was legally binding
- They used the appeal of travel and excitement to encourage men to sign up
- They enticed men with the well-paid steady employment the army offered, although they often omitted the fact that stoppages (deductions made for expenses) reduced pay by almost 80%
19
Q
What made recruitment easy for some regiments? Give 2 examples.
A
- Prestigious regiments had no issue gaining recruits
- E.g. the Guards and the Household Cavalry
20
Q
What were 2 reasons why criminal courts were good targets for recruitment? What other factor supported the enlistment of criminals?
A
- Recruiting sergeants would offer to pay men’s fines if they signed up (this would later be deducted from their pay)
- Men sometimes even had the choice of joining up instead of execution
- Judges were happy to support this as it removed criminals from the local area
21
Q
What enticed alcoholics into signing up?
A
- The daily ration in the army included rum/ gin
22
Q
In what way was there a change in recruitment methods after 1815? What were 2 reasons why?
A
- Dubious methods were no longer used, and all volunteers had to be willing
- The authorities were on the side of recruits
- Public opinion was strongly against men being forced into joining the army
23
Q
Give 3 methods used to encourage recruitment to the army between the Battle of Waterloo and the outbreak of WW1.
A
- Recruiting sergeants still persuaded men to join up
- Printed material, such as newspaper adverts and posters
- Reforms that made serving in the army more attractive, such as the introduction of medals for service and valour
24
Q
What were 2 reasons why printed material became more effective at encouraging enlistment?
A
- The literacy rate increased
- Improvements in technology made it cheaper to produce colour posters and add images
25
What social change made enlisting seem more attractive? Give 2 examples.
- Soldiers became seen as respectable, and wearing uniform became a source of pride
- A popular music hall song from this period was 'Soldiers of the Queen'
26
What was potentially the most effective cause of enlistment? Give 3 pieces of evidence.
- Poverty
- Economic downturns made it easier to recruit
- Regiments in Ireland and in cities were almost always up to full strength
- There was a huge economic boom during the 19th century, which put pressure on the army to improve recruiting techniques
27
What caused the Duke of York to introduce reforms?
- The poor performance of the army in 1793-94
28
List 2 aspects of the Duke of York's reforms.
- Ending the worst of the purchase system
- Establishing a Military College to make a more professional future officer class
29
What objective had the army had between the Napoleonic Wars and the Crimean War? What did this mean for them going into the Crimean War?
- Downsizing had been their only objective
- Therefore the army was still organised the same way that it had been at the end of the Napoleonic Wars
30
When and why was the McNeill-Tulloch Report produced?
- 1855
- Fighting a major campaign 6000 miles away by sea made clear the serious weaknesses in the British armed forces that stemmed from the transportation and supply, not the troops
- The British government was alarmed by reports coming from the Crimea, and therefore sent diplomat McNeill and Colonel Tulloch to report on how the campaign was being managed, with special focus on the commissariat
31
What were the 2 main recommendations of the McNeill-Tulloch Report, and what observations had led to them?
- An improvement of the organisation and supply of the army
- They had noticed that the supplies were at Balaclava, but they were not distributed to troops at the front quickly enough
- An improvement in diet, including fresh meat and vegetables
- Most casualties were a result of disease
32
How far were the recommendations in the McNeill-Tulloch Report implemented?
- A royal warrant was issued in October 1858 that reformed the commissariat and made it much more professional
- Many of their functions were now taken over by the army (before this it had been left to civilians)
- Shift in power in the control of the army
33
How did the McNeill-Tulloch Report change the balance of power between the Army High Command and the government?
- Before the Army High Command were largely independent of government interference
- However due to both the report and the failings in the Crimea, the government gained a much more important role in the management of the army
34
When were the Cardwell reforms made?
- 1868-74
35
What had inhibited the reform of the army between the McNeill-Tulloch Report and the Cardwell reforms?
- The focus had shifted away from Europe to the expanding empire, and the army was fit for small colonial wars
36
What were 4 reasons why the Cardwell reforms were considered necessary?
- Comparisons with the Prussian army
- Recruitment had become a large issue
- The promotion system
- The 1857 Indian Mutiny exposed the inefficiency of the army and its structure
37
Give 2 of the comparisons that exposed weaknesses in the British army when compared to the Prussian.
- The Prussians had a modern professional army that was well-equipped, organised and supplied while the British army was inefficient, and had an inefficient structure
- They had a system of regulars backed by reservists, so in 1866 they managed to put 400,000 men in the field
- To compare, Britain had under 100,000 men in the army, and basically no reservists
38
Why had recruitment become an issue in the lead-up to the Cardwell reforms? Give 5 reasons.
- The 1850s and 60s had been a time of economic prosperity, which meant full employment
- Men were therefore unwilling to join as they could work in factories for higher pay and in better conditions
- The minimum term in the army was 12 years
- They could be sent to fight anywhere
- Army life was harsh (flogging and branding were still used as punishments)
39
What were 2 reasons why Cardwell was against the promotion system?
- In European armies, promotion was largely according to merit
- The Crimean War showed that those in high positions were not always competent, such as Lord Lucan and Lord Cardigan
40
Why did some generals argue in favour of the purchase system?
- The talented men that led Britain to victory in the wars against the French, such as the Duke of Wellington and General Hill, had bought their commissions
41
List the 7 key parts of the Cardwell reforms.
- The 1870 Army Enlistment Act
- The 1871 Regulation of the Forces Act
- Flogging was banned in peacetime
- Branding was abolished completely
- Bounty money was abolished for new recruits
- The purchasing of commissions was abolished
- The army was expanded
42
What did the 1870 Army Enlistment Act do? How would it work in the case of war? What did it do to encourage soldiers to stay on?
- It changed enlistment from 12 years to 6 years in the regulars, followed by 6 years in the reserves
- In the event of war, reservists would rejoin the regular army
- 21 years' service entitled men to a pension
43
What did the 1871 Regulation of the Forces Act do? What was interesting about this? How was it intended to work during times of war?
- It put an end to general service (where men would join up and could be assigned to any unit and stationed anywhere in the world)
- Each regiment was linked more closely to an area
- It was a return to a regional regimental system
- Each regiment would have 2 battalions
- At any time one would be abroad, while the other would be at home
44
Why was the system of one battalion staying in the local area while the other was abroad appealing?
- It meant that men could potentially serve half their time in their local area
45
What else influenced the return to a regional regimental system?
- The Prussians had one
46
What was bounty money, and why was it abolished?
- Money paid to recruiting sergeants per new recruit they brought to the army
- It was thought that abolishing it meant that recruiting sergeants would have less incentive to trick men into signing up
47
What is thought to be a reason why the army was expanded?
- Fear of a Prussian invasion due to their success on the continent
48
How effective were the Cardwell reforms at improving the army? Give 4 examples.
- While Cardwell had made legal changes, the culture of the army stayed the same during the 1870s
- While the purchasing of commissions had been abolished, the social composition of the army stayed the same as the upper class had the advantage of a university education, for example
- Recruitment issues were naturally dealt with as in the 1870s there was an economic downturn, so unemployment grew and the prospect of a secure job with the army was more appealing
- The army lost more men than it gained by introducing short-term enlistments
49
How long did it take for the army to become more socially diverse?
- Only in WW1 when the army was millions strong did men from the lower middle class and the working class manage to become officers on a large scale
50
When were the Haldane Army reforms?
- 1905-12
51
How did the Second Boer War inspire the Haldane Army reforms? Give 3 reasons.
- The army had had to rely on sheer numbers and a scorched earth policy to win, as:
- supply networks were inefficient
- equipment was sub-standard
- soldiers were in bad condition
52
What was another factor that led to the Haldane Army reforms? Give an example.
- Units were taking on more specific roles as technology developed
- E.g. an air corps
53
List 3 parts of the Haldane Army reforms.
- Reorganised the army into the Expeditionary Force and the Territorial Force
- Creation of the Officer Training Corps (OTC)
- Creation of the Imperial General Staff
54
Why did Haldane create the OTC?
- After the Second Boer War, many cadet groups were set up in public schools and universities to teach boys and young men the skills needed to be an officer
- Haldane combined these groups into the Officer Training Corps
55
What did member groups of the OTC gain from being part of it?
- Grants
- They had a set of regulations
56
How many boys and young men were in the OTC by 1914?
- 20,000 schoolboys
- 5000 undergraduates
57
Why did Haldane create the Imperial General Staff?
- The Second Boer War had shown how difficult it was to co-ordinate the different parts of the war effort as most parts of the army improvised their actions
- This was seen as a problem by the government in London, so Haldane created the Imperial General Staff to oversee all strategic matters
58
In what way did Haldane maintain some continuity when creating the Imperial General Staff, and why did he do this?
- Local governments and commanders had the right to veto the decisions made by the Chief of the Imperial General Staff
- The British government wanted to keep the self-governing dominions as part of the empire while respecting their rights
59
What was the difference between the Expeditionary and Territorial forces, and why did Haldane split them?
- The Expeditionary Force was intended to be fully professional and deployed overseas
- The Territorial Force combined reservists and volunteers for home defence in times of war
60
What was the Expeditionary Force expected to be used for, and why?
- It was envisaged that it would be used in a European war as tensions were rising between Germany and France
61
Who did the Territorial Force consist of, and what was different about this?
- The militia (reservists)
- The yeomanry (men who had never served with the army)
- The difference between these 2 groups was abolished
62
What had been done to ensure the Territorial Force was effective in the case of war?
- It had its own support units (e.g. artillery and engineer units), so that it could be used independently
63
When was the value of Haldane's reforms evident? Give 2 ways.
- 1914
- The British Expeditionary Force was efficiently mobilised
- The OTC was used as a source of officers
64
What about the First World War caused a change in the nature of recruitment?
- The scale
65
What was done to increase the number of recruits? How successful was this?
- There was a large recruitment drive where the authorities used all conceivable tactics to get men to sign up
- It was very successful as the army soon numbered millions while the professional Expeditionary Force had only numbered 100,000
66
What was one initiative started in 1914 to increase the number of enlistments? Why was this successful?
- Each town was asked to raise a battalion
- These became known as the 'Pals' battalions
- It became a matter of pride for areas
67
What happened to Pals battalions as the war continued?
- The use of Pals battalions was ended, as it could have a devastating effect on local areas
- For example, over 80% of the Accrington Pals were either killed or wounded during the Battle of the Somme
68
What was another reason why the use of Pals battalions was ended?
- The government had already accepted that only conscription would get them the numbers they needed
69
What were 3 reasons why conscription was introduced?
- The number of recruits was dropping
- The French army was increasingly unable to match the Germans when it came to the number of new recruits
- Stalemate in the east followed by the Russian surrender freed more German troops to fight on the Western Front
70
When was conscription introduced? Who did it apply to?
- January 1916
- Unmarried men between 18 and 41
- May 1916
- Married men as well
71
Was conscription as effective as the government had hoped?
- It did not produce the vast numbers they had hoped for
- However, there were now a steady stream of recruits
72
Give 3 reasons why conscription was ineffective.
- 1.5 million were already being kept behind by the Ministry of Munitions
- There were over 700,000 claims for exemption, most of which were valid
- Conscription was not enforced in Ireland due to unrest and the threat of revolution
73
How many men were conscripted in WW1?
- 2.5 million
