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Social Psychology > Chap 1-3 > Flashcards

Chap 1-3 Flashcards

1
Q

Theory

A

Integrated set of related principles that explains & generates predictions about phenomenon in the world

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2
Q

Hypothesis

A

Testable prediction about what will happen under specific circumstances if theory is correct

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3
Q

Data

A

Set of observations gathered to evaluate hypothesis

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4
Q

Hindsight bias

A

Tendency to overestimate ability to foresee outcome after learning outcome

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5
Q

Confirmation bias

A

Tendency to seek out, pay attention to, & believe only evidence that supports what we are already confident is true

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6
Q

Disposition

A

Person’s inherent qualities, values, & character

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7
Q

Normative influence

A

Desire to fit in

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8
Q

Fundamental Attribution Error

A

Tendency to underestimate the influence of situation on behaviour, &
overestimate influence of personal dispositions

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9
Q

Construal

A

The way we construct our social reality (reality -> construal process -> biased perceptions & beliefs)

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10
Q

Social Psychology

A

Scientific attempt to understand & explain how feelings, thoughts, behaviours of individuals are influenced by actual or perceived feelings, thoughts, behaviours of others

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11
Q

Variable

A

Anything that can take on different values (depends on person, situation)

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12
Q

Measured variable (all)

A

Values are simply recorded (every study)

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13
Q

Manipulated variable (some)

A

Researcher controls values of variable (diff participants get diff levels of variable)

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14
Q

Operational definition (or operationalizing a variable)

A

Specific way of measuring or manipulating abstract variable in particular study

(Turning it into a number, recorded & analyzed)

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15
Q

Self-Report

A

Ppl describe themselves; their
behaviour in interview or survey (rating scale)

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16
Q

Social desirability bias

A

Tendency to answer questions in way to be viewed favourably by others

-Impression management
-Self-deceptive enhancement

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17
Q

Impression management

A

Faking being good, what is viewed favourably by others

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18
Q

Self-deceptive enhancement

A

Unrealistic self-views, but honestly held

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19
Q

Event-contingent recording

A

Participants report experience right after it happens

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20
Q

Direct observation

A

Researchers observe & record the occurrence of behaviour

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21
Q

Population of interest

A

Full set of cases the researcher is interested in understanding

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22
Q

Sample

A

Group who participated in research, & belong to larger group (pop. of interest)

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23
Q

Random sample

A

Sample in which every person in pop. interest has equal chance of being included

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24
Q

Correlational Research

A

Study that measures two or more variables in same sample of ppl, & observes relationship between them

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25
Q

Scatterplot

A

Figure used to represent a correlation

Direction (up-down)
Strength (dots clustered, spread out)

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26
Q

What needed to establish causality

A

1) 2 variables correlate
2) 1 variable précède other
3) No reasonable alternative explanation for pattern of correlation

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27
Q

Experimental research (causality)

A

Study: 1 variable is manipulated, other measured (all other variables = constant)

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28
Q

Independent variable

A

Manipulated variable in experiment

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29
Q

Dependent variable

A

Measured variable in experiment

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30
Q

Random assignment

A

Participants as likely to be assigned one condition as to another

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31
Q

Control group

A

Condition comparable to experimental condition in every way, except lacks one “ingredient” hypothesized to produce expected effect on dependent variable

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32
Q

Moderator

A

Factor that causes the effect to happen to some participants but not others, or in some situations but not others (“it depends” on what?)

(Eg: In Pro- or anti-Ecology sentiment, manipulation only works on ppl who don’t have strong feeling towards their ecology sentiment
-> factor: Prior attitude)

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33
Q

Measurement Validity (construct validity)

A

Measuring what you think you’re measuring
(Reliability)

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34
Q

Reliability

A

Same results every time administer measure
-test-retest reliability
-inter-rater reliability

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35
Q

Internal Validity

A

Rule out alternative explanations for relationship between 2 variables in experiment (confounds)

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36
Q

Differential Attrition

A

Loss of study units from a sample
(When some participants more likely to drop out of study than others cuz factor, eg: level of motivation)

Need random assignment

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37
Q

External Validity

A

1) Results generalized to other samples (sometimes tolerated)

2) generalized to other situations?

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38
Q

Null hypothesis

A

Hypothesis of no effect (Statistically significant finding: provides sufficient evidence against null hypothesis)

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39
Q

P-values

A

Probability of getting result as extreme as one we observed if no difference between 2 groups (no relationship - 2 variables)

0-1

< 0.5 (reject null) - statistically significant
> 0.5 (not reject null)

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40
Q

Replication Study

A

Repeats previous study with identical or similar methods but diff participants ( can original finding be repeated? )

-Direct replication
-Conceptual replication

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41
Q

Direct replication

A

Attempt to recreate original experiment exactly

42
Q

Conceptual replication

A

Recapture original finding using diff methods or measures

43
Q

Open Science Movement

A

Movement to make scientific research accessible to all levels of society, amateur or professional

transparent and accessible to all

Allow those who want to criticize or replicate findings to do accurate replication

44
Q

Failed Replication?

A

1) Original result = fluke
2) Original research = faulty
3) Replication result = fluke
4) Replication research = faulty, Or did not capture dynamics of original study

45
Q

Institutional Review Board (IRB) or Research Ethics Board (REB)

A

Local committee that reviews research proposals & ensures research complies with provincial, national, and international guidelines for ethics in research

46
Q

Informed consent

A

Individual’s signed agreement to participate in research study
(Only after all relevant aspects of study have been explained)

If explanation behind research defeats purpose of study: Deception in research

47
Q

Debriefing

A

End of study, Participant is informed about:
1) aims & hypotheses of study
2) potential social value
3) nature & purpose of deception (if any)
4) opportunity to withdraw data
5) restore sense of well-being

48
Q

Ethical Guidelines

A

1) Costs vs Benefits
2) Informed consent
3) Deception justified
4) Adequate debriefing
5) Confidentiality

49
Q

5 big ideas in social psych

A

1) Situations are powerful
2) We often underestimate power of situations
3) Perceptions of people & situations are not accurate to reality
4) Ppl have a need to belong (social)
5) Best way to understand social behaviour is by using Scientific Method

50
Q

Mediator

A

The mechanism behind an effect, why manipulation has an effect
(Eg: In teacher-student study, it’s teacher behaviour)

51
Q

Moderator vs mediator

A

Mediator: expriment works, because of factor

Moderator: experiment works sometimes, but sometimes not -> depends on factor

52
Q

Self-Concept

A

What we know & believe about ourselves

Thesis: Self is social construction developed & maintained via inferences drawn from social experiences

53
Q

Data Collection Method

A

1) Self-Report
2) Observation

54
Q

Setting of Study

A

1) Field
2) Laboratory

55
Q

Research Design

A

1) Descriptive
2) Correlational
3) Experiments

56
Q

Self-Report Limitations

A

1) Social desirability bias
-Impression management (mitigated by anonymous participation)
-Self-deceptive enhancement

2) Difficult to identify & verbalize experience

3) Not always aware of why we do things

4) Memories may be inaccurate or coloured (biased) - retrospective report (mitigated by Event-contingent recording)

57
Q

Self-Report Advantages

A

1) Easy
2) Relatively inexpensive
3) Collect Data from more participants =stronger study

58
Q

Observation Advantages

A

1) More objective than self-report (if done well)
2) Good approximation of real-world behaviour

59
Q

Observation Limitations

A

1) More expensive, Time-consuming, & Difficult

2) Not as many participants (can’t recruit)

3) Requires extensive training: cuz need to be as consistent & objective as possible

60
Q

WEIRD

A

Random Sampling hard even within 1 country, so… Most research findings involve:
White
Educated
Industrialized
Rich
Democratic

…samples

61
Q

Descriptive Research

A

First step in scientific research,
Scoping out problem or phenomenon to generate hypothesis (Eg: characterizing prevalence & patterns of social media use)

62
Q

r coefficient (correlation coefficient)

A

Statistic representing
Direction & Strength of relationship

-1.0 to +1.0

-/+: Direction

Strength:
Closer to 0: Weaker
Closer to -1 or 1: Stronger

63
Q

Avoiding threats to internal validity

A

1) Experimental conditions only vary on variable of interest (all other variables constant)

2) Random assignment (differential attrition still possible threat)

3) Standardize study scripts/instructions, Not reveal hypotheses, Double-blind (limits experimenter bias, demand characteristics)

64
Q

Size of P-value (affected by…)

A

1) larger size of observed effect (more statistically significant)

2) higher number of participants (more statistically significant)
-Very large sample, even small effect might be significant

Statistically significant not mean practically significant

65
Q

Debriefing as source of info

A

1) Probe for suspicion
2) Indicate need for adjustment (piloting stage)
3) Sense of participants experience, inform interpretation of results, inform future research

66
Q

Deception in Research (reasons)

A

1) Required to create conditions necessary to test hypothesis
2) participants knowledge of true purpose of study may affect their response

67
Q

Self vs. Other-ratings

A

Diff aspects of personality depending on:
1) Availability of info
2) Motivational biases

68
Q

Schemas

A

1) Internal cognitive structures that contain generalized knowledge of world

2) Frameworks: guide perceptions & interpretations of incoming info, help organize knowledge

69
Q

Self-Schema

A

1) Cognitive generalization about self derived from past experience

2) Framework (template): processing incoming info

70
Q

Self-perception theory

A

When uncertain about our attitudes & feelings towards smtg, we infer them from observing own behaviours

(Eg: ecology study with “frequently” & “occasionally” - weak eco attitudes fell for trick, but not strong eco attitudes - mediator)

71
Q

Accuracy of Self-Knowledge

A

1) Think we know ourselves better than other do
2) Motivated to see ourselves positively
3) Not aware of many behind-the-scenes mental processes

72
Q

Looking glass self

A

Learn about ourselves through ppls reactions to us

73
Q

Sources of self-knowledge

A

1) Introspection
2) Inferences from observations of own behaviour (self-perception theory)
3) Feedback & Reactions from others (Looking glass self, Reflected self-appraisals)
4) Social comparisons (social comparison theory - 3 Hyp)

74
Q

Reflected self-appraisal

A

Belief about what others think of one’s self (not necessarily how they truly see us)

75
Q

Social Comparison Theory

A

Hyp 1: we r driven to evaluate our opinions & abilities

Hyp 2: when objective standards not available, then engage in social comparisons

Hyp 3: engage in comparisons with people not too dissimilar

76
Q

Downward comparison

A

Comparing ourselves with ppl worse off

77
Q

Upward comparison

A

Comparing ourselves with ppl better off

78
Q

Self-esteem

A

Positive & negative evaluation a person has of themselves

Trait level: enduring level of self-regard, fairly stable

State level: dynamic, changing feelings about self (vary moment to moment)

79
Q

Contingencies of self-worth model

A

Ppl want to maintain, protect, & enhance self-esteem by attempting success & avoiding failure in domains where they stake self-worth

-Increase self-esteem if domain believed to be valued by others

-better to stake self-worth in wide range of domains

80
Q

Sociometer Theory

A

Theory: Ppl use self-esteem as “gauge” to assess degree to which they accepted by others

81
Q

Naïve Realism & Corollary

A

Naïve realism: Belief we see world as it is

Corollary: belief others see world as we do

82
Q

Self-fulfilling prophecies

A

Expectations of success can lead to behaviours that ensures success

But no guarantee

83
Q

Narcissism

A

Unrealistic & self-aggrandizing views of self
(Defensiveness, agression when positive self-view threatened)

84
Q

Low-self esteem

A

1) poorer well being (depression, anxiety, loneliness)

2) relationship problems

85
Q

High self-esteem

A

1) higher initiative, resilience, positive affect

2) self-fulfilling prophecy

86
Q

Self-enhancement motivation (motivation to self-evaluate)

A

Motivation to view oneself positively
Eg: Better-than-average effect

87
Q

Better-than-average effect

A

Finding: most ppl think they r above average on various personality trait & ability dimensions (abstract vs specific dimensions)

(not possible: we can’t all be better than average, cuz average would just be higher)

Reason: self-serving construals

88
Q

Self-serving construals

A

When evaluating oneself on abstract traits, ppl think they above average (construe ambiguous traits in many ways)

“What others r like on average vs what I’m like at my best”

Better-average effect disappears when domain specific

89
Q

Self-Affirmation Theory

A

Theory: Ppl maintain positive overall sense of self-worth in face of threats to self-concept by affirming valued aspects of oneself unrelated to threat

90
Q

Self-concept clarity

A

Extent to which one possess clearly defined, internally consistent, & temporarily stable sense of self

91
Q

Self-verification theory

A

1) Ppl want to maintain coherent self-view, cuz need prediction & control

2) ppl will seek feedback that reinforces own self-view (even when negative)

92
Q

Self-verification strategies

A

1) Developing self-confirmatory social environments (close with ppl who share same views on them as self-view)

-Identity cues: Signal how we expect to be treated (clothing, conduct, material possessions)

2) Engaging cognitive strategies -> produce illusion of self-confirmatory social environ.
-selective attention to feedback confirming self-view
-better recall for self-confirmatory feedback (instead of self-discrepant)

93
Q

Self-Enhancement vs Self-Verification

A

Affective response: self-enhancement theory

Cognitive response: self-verification theory

Several factors influence which will win over other

94
Q

Self-Regulation

A

Processes by which ppl initiate, then control behaviour in pursuit of goal
(Ability to prioritize long-term goals over immediate rewards)

95
Q

Self-Discrepancy Theory

A

1) Actual self: belief about what you are actually like

2) Ideal self: belief about what you want to be

3) Ought self: belief about what you should be (ought to be)

96
Q

Hot processes

A

Driven by strong emotions
Energize us to pursue rewards

97
Q

Cool processes

A

Driven by reasoning
Keep us on track to pursue long-term goals, help resist temptation

98
Q

Implementation-intention (automatic self-control strategies)

A

If-then plan:

When particular cue encountered (if), then engage in goal-directed behaviour (then)

99
Q

Self- presentation

A

Presenting person we want others to believe we are (social interaction like dramatic performance)
Eg: Face

100
Q

Face

A

Public image we want to project

101
Q

Self- monitoring

A

Tendency to monitor behaviour to fit current situation (high or low self-monitoring)

102
Q

Self- handicapping

A

Protecting self- image by engaging in self- defeating behaviours to have excuse for later failure

Social Psychology (2 decks)

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