Chap 1-3 Flashcards
(158 cards)
0
Q
Macroscopic anatomy (gross)
types of macroscopic anatomy
A
examination of relatively large structures and features usually visible with the unaided eye
systemic anatomy and regional anatomy
1
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Anatomy
A
To cut back ; to cut up ; the study of structure
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Q
Systemic anatomy
examples of systemic anatomy
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study of the structure of organ system
eg: skeletal system, muscular system, cardiovascular system
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Regional anatomy
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study of a region of the body
eg: knee = skin, bones, muscles, ligaments
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Microscopic anatomy
types of microscopic anatomy
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exam of anything that needs to be seen with microscope (divided into size)
histology, cytology, ultrastructural anatomy
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Histology
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study of tissues
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Cytology
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study of cells (smaller than tissues)
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Ultrastructural anatomy
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study of components of cell (smaller than cells)
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Physiology
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the study of function
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Systemic physiology
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system of the body
eg: how does the digestive system function?
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Hystophysiology
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study of nervous cells
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Cytophysiology
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study of tissues and cells
12
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Morphology
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study of shape
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Pathology
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study of disease
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Pharmacology
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study of drugs
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Microbiology
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study of small living things
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Chemicals - 6 chemicals that make up 97% of body weights
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carbon hydrogen nitrogen oxygen phosphate, sulfur
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Organelles
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parts / structure that make up cells
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Cells
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fundamentals of life;
intracellular fluid
extracellular fluid
interstitial
plasma
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Tissues
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made up of cells ; group of cells that have the same function
there are 4 tissues in a body
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Organs
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made up of 2 or more tissues ; have very specific functions
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Organ system
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bunch of organs with the same function
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Organisms
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made of 11 systems ; most important - Reproductive
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Sagittal
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separate right from left
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Midsagittal
separate EQUAL right and left
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Frontal (coronal)
separate front from back
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Horizontal (transverse or cross-section)
separate top from bottom
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Anterior - posterior
towards the front - towards the back
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Superior - inferior
towards up - towards bottom
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Medial - lateral
inside (middle) - outside (the side)
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Superficial (external) - Deep (internal)
towards the outside - towards the inside
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Proximal - distal
towards the start - towards the end
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Body cavities
posterior cavity
anterior cavity
abdominal (peritoneal) cavity
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Posterior cavity
cranial cavity - brain
| spinal cavity - spinal cord
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Anterior cavity
thoracic cavity - pleural cavity, pericardial cavity, mediastinum cavity
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Peritoneal cavity
abdominal cavity - contain digestive system
| pelvic cavity - reproductive system, urinary system
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Membranes
help to protect body from foreign attack;
mucous
serous
synovial
cutaneous
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Mucous membrane
produce mucous
| wherever the body is exposed to the outside environment
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Serous membrane
produce serous fluid - outside the heart
parietal layer - on the wall; ribcage
visceral layer - outside of organ
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Synovial membranes
found in the joint; provide lubricant to the joint
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Cutaneous membranes
refers to skin
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Response to stressors
homeostasis
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Negative feedback
correction
eg: body temp, sugar level
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Positive feedback
exaggeration
eg: blood clot, giving birth
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Element
pure form; same type of atom in larger quantity
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Atom
compose chemicals; single unit of the element
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Molecule
atoms bonded
eg: H2O
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Compound
composed by molecules
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Ion
anything with a charge
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Subatomic particles
neutrons
protons
electrons
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Atomic number
the number of proton
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Atomic mass
protons and neutrons
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Isotopes
an atom that has the same atomic number but different in atomic mass
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Chemical bonding
force of attraction based on octet rule
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Ionic bonding
giving and taking of e- ;
cation gives electron to anion
eg: Na+ Cl-
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Covalent bond
sharing of electrons (single, double, triple bond)
a lot more stronger than ionic bond
eg: H2O, CH4, O2
Polar and non-polar bond
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Polar
unequal sharing (hydrophilic)
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Non-polar
equal sharing (hydrophobic)
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Hydrogen bond
attraction between 2 molecules that contain hydrogen
weak attraction
eg: ice cube floats on water
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Chemical reaction
re-association of bonds
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Synthesis (combination, anabolic) reaction
particles combine to make a new product
A + B --> AB
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Decomposition (catabolic) reaction
particles breaks apart
AB --> A + B
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Exchange (displacement) reaction
exchanging the partners of the particles
single: AB + C --> CB + A
double: AB + CD --> AC + BD
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Reversible reaction
A + B AB
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Reaction size: particle size
the smaller the particle is, the faster it will react
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Reaction size: temperature
the warmer the faster
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Reaction size: concentration
how much of a chemical we have; the more concentrated the faster
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Reaction size: catalysts
chemical/event that makes the reaction goes faster
eg: boiling heat, enzymes
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Water: temperature effects
High heat capacity and vaporization
H2O has the capacity to hold on to heat, it takes time to do it, and it also vaporized
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Water: reactivity
Dehydration reaction
Hydrolysis reaction
dehydration - synthesis reaction because making new chemical
hydrolysis - H2O broken apart to allow another chemical to break apart
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Water: adhesive/cohesive properties
adhesive - H2O is very sticky
cohesive - H2O is sticky to each other
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Carbon oxide (CO2)
more important than O2
easily dissolves in water
maintain the pH in body
ionizes in water
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Oxygen
doesn't easily dissolve in water
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Ionic solution
acids, bases, and salts
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Electrolytes
disassociate in water to form ions
acid
base
salt
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Electrolytes: acid
contains excess hydrogen ions (proton donor)
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Electrolytes: base
contains excess hydroxyl ions (removes H+)
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Electrolytes: salt
no excess hydrogen or hydroxyl ions (some can interact with water effecting pH)
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pH
measure of H+ ion concentration
acidic - below 7
neutral/water - 7
basic/alkaline - above 7
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Buffers
resist the change in pH by absorbing H+ and OH-
composed of weak acids and bases
neutralizes acids and bases
near pH 7
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Organic chem
molecules contains C
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Carbohydrates
most are soluble/ dissolvable in H2O
always have the same ratio
divided into groups based on the number of H
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Isomers
same formula with different structure
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Monosaccharides
simple sugars ( 3-7 carbons)
glucose, galactose, fructose - hexasugars
ribose, ribulose - pentose
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Disaccharide
2 sugars joint
Maltose - 2 glucose and 2 glucose
sucrose - glucose and fructose
lactose - glucose and galactose
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Polysaccharides
long chains of sugars
cellulose - long chains of glucose (fibers); can't digest in the body
amylose - starch
glycogen - how animals store sugars
glycogenesis - forming glycogen
glycogenolysis - breaking glycogen
86
Lipids
similar with C,H,O but don't have a lot of O
different from carbohydrates in ratio
NOT soluble in H2O
composed of chains of fatty acids
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Lipids: fatty acids
saturated - all single bond; produced by animals; raise cholesterol; fat @ room temp
unsaturated - double bong with carbons, produced by plants (lower cholesterol); mono saturated; oil @ room temp
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Glycerides
glycerol with fatty acids
triglycerides
phospholipids
glycolipids
lipopolysaccharides
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Glycerides: triglycerides
very bad
bad cholesterol - clog up arteries and causes strokes
3 fatty acid chain
no phosphate
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Glycerides: phospholipids
phosphate attached
polar head - hydrophilic (dissolvable in water)
non-polar tail - hydrophobic (not dissolvable in water)
main component of a membrane
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Steroids
carbon rings; fatty acid chains that gets squeezed
```
cholesterol
bile salts
estrogens
androgens
corticosteroids
```
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Steroids: cholesterol
very important steroids because makes cells flexible
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Steroids: bile salts
necessary to digest lipids in the diet
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Steroids: estrogen and androgens
female and male hormones
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Steroids: corticosteroids
helps reduce stress
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Protein
contains CHNOS
| chains of amino acids
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Protein: amino acids
building block of protein
nitrogen side
acid side
20 possible R groups - determines the structure of amino acids
linked by peptide bond (dehydration)
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Protein: amino acids structure
1st primary: amino acid sequence, determines the 2nd structure
2nd secondary: alpha helix / beta sheet
3rd tertiary:
4th quaternary (not all have 4th): separate chains linked together
- globular: soluble in H2O
- fibrous: insoluble in H2O
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Types of proteins
determines the structures and functions
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Types of proteins: structural protein
forms structure
- keratin: hair and nails
- ligaments: control contraction of body
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Types of proteins: regulatory
help to regulate the body
- hormones
- neuropeptides (eg: neurotransmitter)
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Types of proteins: contractile protein
cause muscle to contract
- actin
- myosin
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Types of proteins: transport protein
carry things around the body
| - hemoglobins (transport oxygen)
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Types of proteins: immunological protein
fight disease
| - immunoglobulins (antibodies)
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Types of proteins: catalyst protein
catalyze chemical reaction
- enzymes (ends with -ase except glycogen)
eg: lactose - lactase = enzymes digest sugars
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Nucleotide
nucleic acid (low pH)
pentose - sugar (5 carbon rings)
phosphate
nitrogen bases
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Difference between DNA and RNA
1. different sugars
2. 5 nitrogenous bases - purines and pyrimides
3. function:
- DNA: genetic code (blueprints for the proteins made)
- RNA: copy of the genetic code
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Components of plasma membrane and functions: Mosaic
lots of different items in the lipids
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Components of plasma membrane and functions: Channel protein
run from 1 side through the other
| gated/ungated
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Components of plasma membrane and functions: Receptor protein
allow cells to recognize each other
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Components of plasma membrane and functions: Carrier protein
transport proteins (pass through membranes to pass materials back and forth)
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Components of plasma membrane and functions: Cell adhesion molecules
desmosomes - allow cell to stick to each other
hemidesmosomes - allow cell to stick to the protein in the area
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Components of plasma membrane and functions: structural support to cells
part of cell shape is determined by cell membrane
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Components of plasma membrane and functions: receptors
receive signals
cell markers: recognize 'not formal' cells in our body
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Components of plasma membrane and functions: trans-membrane potential
electrical and chemical gradient (electrical activity)
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Components of plasma membrane and functions: membrane transport
semi-permeable (some things can move through it) - membrane decides the things that are moving into the cell membrane
passive - diffusion (dont require energy for the movement)
active - need energy (ATP)
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Chemical gradients / diffusion (passive movement)
moving from high to low - the steeper the slope, the faster the particle move
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Chemical gradients / diffusion (passive movement):
| factor that influence the speed of movement
size of particles and charge
- the smaller the particle, the faster it moves
- if inside (+), outside (-), the movement will be fast
- if inside (-), outside (-), doesn't move as fast
```
solubility
size of channels
surface area
distance - how far it has to travel
temperature - the warmer, the faster
```
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Osmosis (passive movement)
movement of H2O from a high H2O concentration to low
osmotic pressure - the pull on H2O
hydrostatic pressure - the push on H2O
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Carrier facilitated diffusion (passive/diffusion)
molecules carrying particles in/out of cell from high to low
eg: insulin is a carrier of glucose
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Active movement (energy required)
active transport - from low concentration to high concentration (against the gradients)
need energy
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Active movement (energy required):
uniporter
symporter
antiporter
uniporter - pumps 1 ion
symporter - pumps 2 ions in the same direction
antiporter - pump 2 ions in opposite direction
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Bulk transport:
exocytosis
endocytosis
exocytosis - exit the cell
| endocytosis - into the cell
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Exocytosis
secrete - a product leading the cell (pancreas makes insulin, insulin is secreted)
excrete - a waste leaving the cell
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Endocytosis
phagocytosis - cell eating (bring the particles in), large particles
pynocytosis - cell drinking (fluid being sucked in), small particles
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Tonicity
```
relative concentration (relative to cell)
all cells have the same concentration
isotonic = same concentration as a cell; +/- 1%
```
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Hypotonic
less concentrated particles in a cell (more H2O)
| cytolysis (cell swells and eventually burst)
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Hypertonic
more concentrated particles than a cell (less H2O)
| crenation (shrivel cells)
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Cytosol (main components)
cell solution
1. salt (ions) - primarily potassium; cell actively bring in potassium and bring out sodium
2. proteins
3. water
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Biosynthetic organelles
Ribosomes
a type of RNA + protein
make proteins
produced in nucleolus
2 types:
- free floating: proteins proteins stay inside the cell
- bound/ fixed with ER (RER): proteins will leave the cell
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Biosynthetic organelles
ER (endoplasmic recticulum)
membrane tube network
- rough ER (RER): with ribosomes attacked
- smooth ER (SER): no ribosomes, make lipids ands carbs, stores calcium in muscle cells
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Biosynthetic organelles
Golgi Apparatus
modify products from ER (both RER and SER)
| secretory vesicle - packages the products
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Biosynthetic organelles
Golgi Apparatus - 3 major vesicles
transport - incoming products to golgi
secretory - packaging products (secreted)
lisosomes - materials produced by RER but stays in the cell (exceptions); secretory vesicle that stays in the cell; contain enzymes to digest things; autolysis (self-destruct); peroxisome (destroys peroxide, type of lisosome, catalyse)
135
Biosynthetic organelles
Mitochondria
outer membrane - identical to cell membrane
inner membrane (cristae) - contains enzymes - produced (ATP)
matrix - fluid inside cristae; has own ribosomes - like ribosomes in bacteria - contains own DNA
reproduce on its own - self replication
lisosomes destroys mitochondria
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Microfilaments
cytoplasmic streaming - constantly in motion
| form microvilli - an increased surface area
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Intermediate filaments
tough insoluble fibers
provide structural reinforcement of shape
internal support of vesicles
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Microtubules
small tubes - composed of tubulin
help maintain the shape of cells
important to form spindle in mitosis
from cilia ad flagella
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Cytoplasmic inclusions
store glycogen that are spreading around
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Nucleus
organelles that are composed of internal structure that are also composed of organelles;
double membrane-structure (fluid: nucleoplasm - lower pH)
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Nucleolus
where RNA is composed
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Chromatin (DNA)
long strands of threads
heterochromatin - inactive DNA
euchromatin - active DNA
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Chromosomes (DNA)
coiled for cell division
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2 steps in protein synthesis
transcription - DNA make RNA
| translation - RNA make proteins
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Cell cycle
life of cell - when cells contact each other, they stop growing
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Interphase
cell in normal shape
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G1
normal function
grow in size
increase organelles
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S
DNA replicates
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G2
cells prepare for division
can't produce ATP during division
make extra proteins and ATP it will need
150
G0
when cells leave and can't come back/regrow
| some cells will continue to G1
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Cell division
cells divide to make 2 exact copy of the cells
| separate the DNA so 1 would go to 1 cell and the other would go to another
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Process of Cell Division
prophase - chromosomes coils
metaphase - chromosomes attach to spindle fibers in the midline (equator)
anaphase - chromosomes are being pulled to poles, spindle fibers are elongating
telophase - chromosomes uncoil
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Mitotic phase
cell division - what happens in body cells
| homologous (23 pairs) chromosomes separate
154
Cytokenesis
division of cytoplasm
| begins during anaphase
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Chromatin
uncoiled DNA
156
Chromosomes
coiled DNA
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Chromatids
each pair of chromosomes
158
Cell death
apoptosis - cell kills itself (suicide); can be internal / external signals
necrosis - cell lose osmotic mechanism that cause swell and burst
