Chap 13 Flashcards
1
Q
define cross-cultural psychology
A
Psychological research and theorizing that attempts to
account for the psychological differences between and within
different cultural groups.
2
Q
What are two reasons culture is important to personality psychology?
A
- Individuals may differ from each other to some extent because they belong to different cultural groups
- Members of some groups may
differ from each other (of the same cultural group) in distinctive ways
3
Q
Define Enculturation
A
Differences between cultural groups develop as a child learns the culture into which she is born
4
Q
Define Acculturation
A
as a person who moves from one
country to another gradually picks up the culture of her new home
5
Q
a) Who did Freud base most of his own introspections and experience on?
b) What limit does this create in terms of Cultural Psychology?
A
a) theories were largely based on his treating upper-middle-class women in Vienna.
b) This creates a limit on GENERALIZABILITY, based on WEIRD.
6
Q
a) define WEIRD
b) Give an example of a methodology that contributes to this issue on a wider scale?
A
a) Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic
b) Convenience sampling of students by professors/researchers
Explanation for b, if confused:
Explanation: (educated, in university) (most psych research done in West, so Western) (Most students able to afford school, Rich) (USA is industrial & ‘Democratic’)
7
Q
Why is Cultural Psychology Relevant to Personality? (3)
A
- Cross-Cultural Understanding
- Generalizability of Research & Theory
- Varieties of Human Experience
————–
If you don’t understand answers, here are examples:
a. ex. Danish moms leave babies outside for naps in cold air as it is considered healthy for them (wrapped up), in USA this could be seen as child abuse.
b. ex. Personality and Expressions are expressed differently in different cultural contexts, ex. Americans have a very aggressive business style, where Japanese contexts are personal and people-informed before business transpires.
c. ex. an American might look at a house and never notice which way its door points. To a Chinese person raised in the tradition of feng shui, this
would be one of the first things noticed and would lead to some
immediate conclusions concerning the dangers and possibilities that
might exist within the house
8
Q
Define Etics
A
The universal components of an idea
For example, all cultures have some conception of duty
9
Q
Define Emics
A
The particular components of an idea
For example, different cultures impose
their own ideas about what the duty actually is.
10
Q
Give an example of a concept that is Emic and NOT able to be compared cross-culturally
A
There are multiple answers, all the following are correct:
renqing (relationship reciprocity) in Taiwan
yuan (predestined relationship) in Taiwan
chemyon (social face) in Korea
Amae (indulgent dependency for parental-child bonding) in Japan
11
Q
Is ‘Tough and Easy’ Etic or Emic?
A
Etic
12
Q
Define Tough on the ‘Tough and Easy’ scale in cross-cultural context
A
Only a few goals are viewed as valuable and few ways are available to achieve them.
13
Q
Define Easy on the ‘Tough and Easy’ scale in cross-cultural context
A
Individuals can pursue many different goals and at least some of them are relatively simple to attain
14
Q
Is ‘Achievement and Affiliation’ Etic or Emic?
A
Etic
15
Q
Define ‘Achievement’ on the Achievement and Affiliation Cultural scale.
A
a central aspect of any culture
is the degree to which it emphasizes the need to achieve
16
Q
Define ‘Affiliation’ on the Achievement and Affiliation Cultural scale.
A
A culture that
reflects needs for love and community
17
Q
What was the outcome of cultures that scored high for Achievement, according to McClelland?
What two pieces of evidence did he use to measure this, cross culturally?
A
a) They expanded industrially more rapidly.
b) He used CHILDREN STORIES to rate whether they were affiliation or achievement focused, then measured ELECTRICITY OUTPUT to measure industrial growth.
18
Q
Do cultures vary on Complexity?
A
A: They may, but we can not measure it reliably. (sorry, trick question!)
though WEIRD psychology may assume industrialized cultures are more complex, there may be further complexities we do not recognize within hunter-gatherer or monastery cultures.
19
Q
Tightness vs. Looseness: define Looseness in Cultural Psychology context
A
cultures that tolerate large deviation from proper behavior
20
Q
Tightness vs. Looseness: define Tightness in Cultural Psychology context
A
cultures that tolerate very little deviation from proper behavior
21
Q
What kind of cultures tend to be ‘tighter’ of the tightness-looseness scale?
A
Ethnically homogeneous and densely populated societies tend to be culturally tighter.
22
Q
Give one cultural example of a tight culture
A
Hong kong
23
Q
Why do tight cultures enforce norms strictly? (2)
A
1) people must be similar enough to agree on those norms
2) because strict norms of behavior are more necessary when people must live close together.
24
Q
What kind of cultures tend to be ‘Loose’ of the tightness-looseness scale?
A
historically a diverse and geographically spread out societies
25
What best determines looseness in a culture, between the two identified mitigating variables in the textbook?
What is a culture that seems to be an exception to this rule?
a) DIVERSITY may override DENSITY in determining tightness and looseness
b) Singapore (densely populated, highly diverse, VERY tight culture - think of spray painting incident)
26
Give one example of a loose culture
USA is the prime example within the textbook.
27
What was the Singapore spray painting an example of?
a) Tightness-looseness
explanation: USA teenager spray paints in Singapore. In USA, this would be a fine, In Singapore, it meant physical punishment, jail time, and a fine.
28
What does "strengths of the heart" refer to on the Heart Vs. Head scale?
fairness, mercy, gratitude, hope, love, and religiosity
29
What does "strengths of the head" refer to on the Heart Vs. Head scale?
artistic excellence, creativity, curiosity, critical thinking, and learning
(good job learning, I believe in you!)
30
What attributes did a state have if they had a 'head' focus on the Heart vs. Head scale?
What way did these states tend to vote?
(USA comparing states study)
a) tended to have better job growth,
lower unemployment, and diverse immigration patterns
b) Democratic
31
According to Rentfrew, why do cities vary on Heart vs Head focus? (3)
1. selective migration
(ex. diff ppl choose diff cities, actors choose Hollywood and developers choose Silicon Valley)
2. Social influence can affect a person’s values.
(ex. If everyone around you either supports or opposes human rights, you may change your stance to match)
3. ecological factors may influence cultural differences
(ex. little sun = higher depression rate)
32
Define Collectivistic cultures in the context of Collectivism vs. Individualism
Give one example.
a) the needs of the group (the “collective”) are more important
than the rights of individuals.
b) Japan, China, India
33
Define Individualistic cultures in the context of Collectivism vs. Individualism
Give one example.
a) the single person is
more important than the collective. People are viewed as separate from each other.
b) USA, Canada, UK
34
"The squeaky wheel gets the grease" is indicative of what kind of culture?
why?
a) Individualistic
b) being separate is important to get what you want, 'squeaking' above others is rewarded as an individual.
35
“The nail that stands out gets pounded down” is indicative of what kind of culture?
why?
a) Collectivistic
b) Those who stand out are punished, it is better to remain part of the group, i.e. the collective.
36
What kind of poor outcomes are people in Individualistic cultures prone to?
Because the philosophy of
individualism isolates people from each other, members of individualist
cultures may be particularly vulnerable to problems such as loneliness
and depression
37
Who has more Trait words, English or Chinese?
What is this an indication of?
a) English.
English: 2,800 trait words
Chinese: 557 trait words
b) some psychologists to suspect that personality in the Western sense is less meaningful in Eastern contexts, personality may have little or no meaning in more collectivistic cultures.
38
More autobiographies (vs. Group histories) are written in
what kind of cultures?
Individualistic
39
More histories of the group (vs. autbiographies) are written in What kind of cultures?
Collectivistic
40
satisfaction with life is based on the harmony of one’s relationships with
others (vs. self-esteem) is more important in what cultural context?
Collectivistic
41
Self Esteems (vs. satisfaction with life is based on the harmony of one’s relationships with
others) is more important in what cultural context?
Individualistic
42
People in what kind of cultures are less attentive to differences in
status?
Give one example.
a) Individualistic
b) in USA, many students call profs by their first name
43
People in what kind of cultures are more attentive to differences in
status?
Give one example.
a) Collectivistic
b) in India, if someone is older than you by even one day, you are expected to give respect to them.
44
How do Collectivistic vs. Individualistic cultures vary based on SELF REGARD?
Contrast Japan vs. USA: Why?
a) Individualistic cultures feel a higher need for self regard than collectivistic ones.
b) Research has found that
Japanese people may not have the pervasive need to think well of
themselves that is so characteristic of North Americans, and the
theoretical explanation is that they tie their individual well-being to that
of a larger group
45
Who is more sociable: Collectivistic or Individualistic cultures?
What does this mean for the amount of time spent with people vs. alone and who one spends time with?
a) Collectivistic.
b) In general, members of
individualist cultures spend less time with more people; members of
collectivist cultures spend more time with fewer people
to BREAKDOWN:
Collectivisitic: + time with - people
Individiualistic: - time with + people
46
How does Emotion vary between Individualistic vs. Collectivistic cultures?
Think of emotional focus and one emotion example of emotion for each.
People in individualist countries report experiencing more SELF-FOCUSED emotions (ex. anger)
Collectivist countries are more likely to report experiencing OTHER-FOCUSED emotions (ex. sympathy)
47
a) What 'danger' motivates the decisions of someone in a collectivistic culture?
b) what is the behavioural outcome of this?
a) a primary danger in collectivist society is “losing face,” or respect by one’s social group -
b) so it makes sense to become risk-averse and attentive to the possibility of loss.
48
a) What drive motivates the decisions of someone in a individualistic culture?
b) what is the behavioural outcome of this?
a) the focus is on individual ACHIEVEMENT that stands apart from the group
b) Because of their need to stand out, members of individualist cultures may self-enhance (describing themselves as better than they really are)
49
Define: holier-than-thou phenomenon
What kind of culture is more prone to this phenomenon?
a) people describe themselves* as being more likely than they really are to perform good acts (ex. such as donating money or avoiding being rude)
b) Individualistic
*bias applied only to
perceptions of self: Collectivists and individualists were both fairly
accurate in predicting the future virtuous behavior of their
acquaintances.
50
Behavioural Consistency: The individualist view of the self assumes...
Due to this, how is an individual expected to act in one situation to the
next?
a) ...that the causes of behavior lie within the person.
b) an individual is expected to behave consistently from one situation to the
next
51
Behavioural Consistency: The Collectivistic view of the self assumes...
Due to this, how is an individual expected to act in one situation to the
next?
a) there is less pressure to behave consistently and less conflicted about
inconsistent behavior
b) might be expected to change their behavior more as a function of the particular immediate situation
52
Why is behavioural consistency important in American Contexts vs. Korean?
In America mental health is more tied to behavioural consistency than in Korean cultural contexts.
ex. behavioural inconsistency in America would be seen as having poor mental health.
53
There is also some reason to wonder whether cultural comparisons of
behavioral variability based on self-report are entirely accurate.
Give an example from the textbook that highlights this.
One study showed that on standard questionnaires, black South Africans
(who tend to be more collectivist) rated their behavior as more variable than did white South Africans (who tend to be more individualistic). However, behavior as described in daily diaries and direct observations of behavior (including video observations across 12 laboratory situations!) showed that the behavior of both groups was equally consistent and equally predictable from personality measures
54
Verticality vs. Compassion: What is the assumption of Vertical Societies?
Vertical societies assume that
individual people are importantly different from each other
55
Verticality vs. Compassion: What is the assumption of Horizontal Societies?
horizontal societies tend to view all persons as essentially equal
56
What would a collectivist-vertical society might enforce vs. a collectivist-horizontal?
Give one example of a country for each.
collectivist-vertical :strong authority on its members (China)
vs.
collectivist-horizontal: weaker authority but a strong ethic that enforces equality and sharing
(Israel)
57
What would a individualist-vertical society might enforce vs. a individualist-horizontal?
Give one example of a country for each.
Individualist-vertical: would have strong authority but also give individuals the freedom/obligation to support themselves in a market economy (France)
vs.
individualist-horizontal: values individual freedom but also assume that meeting everyone’s needs is a shared obligation (Norway)
58
What is a dimension that does NOT map well to compare collectivistic vs Individualistic cultures?
Explain.
a) self-compassion
b) Taiwan and Thailand, both collectivistic, are on opposite sides of the scale while USA, Individualistic, falls in the middle.
59
Is Individualism on the rise?
What are factors that effect this? (3)
a) YES. On average, individualism
scores have increased on average about 12 percent since 1960
b) individualism increases, relative to collectivism, in countries that
experience:
1. higher incomes
2. more education
3. a shift in occupations from rural to cities
60
Collectivism-individualism theory basically divides the world into two parts, whereas a newer approach divides it into three.
What are these three dimensions?
1. Honor
2. Face
3. Dignity
61
Define what Dignity means to the individual in a cultural psychology context.
Give one example of a country that is high for Dignity culture.
a) Dignity: Individuals are valuable
in their own right and this value does not come from what other people think of them
b) USA
62
Define what Face means to the individual in a cultural psychology context.
Give one example of a country that is high for Face culture.
a) Face: People in such a culture are motivated to protect each others’ social image by being careful not to insult, overtly criticize, or even disagree with each other in public.
b) Japan
63
Define what Honor means to the individual in a cultural psychology context.
Give one example of a country that is high for Honor culture.
a) Honor: People must protect themselves, their families, and their own property
b) Latin America
64
Give an example of a social norm within culture that rates high for Honor
An insult is an important event in such cultures, because to tolerate it could signal weakness and put one’s person and property at risk.
A strong social norm demands retaliation, regardless of the cost.
65
What environmental context develops into a high Honor culture?
where the forces of civilization—such as laws and police—are weak or nonexistent and people must protect themselves, their families, and their own property
66
What environmental context develops into a high Face culture?
societies that have stable hierarchies
based on cooperation
67
What environmental context develops into a high Dignity culture?
Market economies that are based on equal exchanges of goods and services among free individuals.
68
At present, the most common way to compare the personalities of different cultures is using...
The BIG FIVE.
69
USA Study, Rentfrow 2013
Cluster 1: Friendly & Conventional region, what area was this cluster found in?*
describe.
*I do not think the region is super important, but it will give you a general idea.
a) American Midwest and South
b) sociable, considerate, dutiful, and
traditional
70
USA Study, Rentfrow 2013
Cluster 2: Relaxed & Creative region, what area was this cluster found in?*
describe.
*I do not think the region is super important, but it will give you a general idea.
a) American West coast, Rocky mountains, & Sunbelt
b) characterized by traits such as open-minded, tolerant, individualistic, and emotionally stable (scoring low on
neuroticism)
71
USA Study, Rentfrow 2013
Cluster 3: Temperamental & Uninhibited region, what area was this cluster found in?*
describe.
*I do not think the region is super important, but it will give you a general idea.
a) Mid-Atlantic & North Eastern states
b) high scores on traits such as impulsive, irritable, inquisitive,
passionate, and competitive. They also scored relatively high on
neuroticism.
72
NEO Personality Inventory, or translations of it, in
26 cultures to 23,031 individuals (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001).
They found that, in almost all cultures, WOMEN scored higher than men in....(4)
neuroticism, agreeableness, warmth, and openness to feelings*
*these gender differences are more prominent in so-called developed nations
73
NEO Personality Inventory, or translations of it, in
26 cultures to 23,031 individuals (Costa, Terracciano, & McCrae, 2001).
They found that, in almost all cultures, MEN scored higher than women in....
scored higher than women in assertiveness and openness to ideas.*
*these gender differences are more prominent in so-called developed nations
74
What is one critique of the Big 5 being translated to Spanish speakers?
Such translations missed particular aspects of Spanish personality, such as humor, good nature, and unconventionality
75
What is one critique of the Big 5 being translated to Arabic speakers?
study of Arabic trait words found seven factors, not five—the two extra factors were integrity and humility
76
Some researchers have argued that only three of the Big Five should be considered truly universal - what are the 3?
1. conscientiousness
2. extraversion
3. agreeableness
77
Translating personality-trait terms from one language to another is hazardous because translations are always at least a little bit inexact.
What are some ways psychologists are combatting this? (2)
1. a statistical technique called
item response theory (IRT)
2. developing trait scales endogenously
78
What does IRT do?
IRT analyses go deep into personality
inventories by looking not just at mean scores, but at patterns in how participants respond to specific items.
IRT: item response theory (a statistical analysis)
79
What does it mean to develop a trait scale ENDOGENOUSLY?
Why do we do this?
Why is this difficult?
a) from the inside, within a culture
b) to see if personality-trait constructs that emerge in one culture also emerge in another
c) it requires having psychologists native to said culture.
80
East Asians think more holistically than Americans, what does this mean?
They explain events in CONTEXT rather than in ISOLATION, seeking to integrate divergent points of view rather than set one against another
81
Japanese and Chinese people are more willing than Americans
to describe themselves in
a) Contradictory terms
b) Consistent terms
A) Japanese and Chinese people are more willing than Americans
to describe themselves in
a) Contradictory terms
82
One study showed that areas of the
prefrontal cortex that are generally activated when one thinks about one’s self are also activated when ______—but not ________—think about their mothers!
What does this finding show?
What kind of thinking is the first group operating under?
a) One study showed that areas of the
prefrontal cortex that are generally activated when one thinks about
one’s self are also activated when CHINESE—but not AMERICANS—think
about their mothers!
b) This finding was interpreted to mean that the self is a broader concept for Chinese, because it includes important other people
c) Holistic
83
In one study, ________ participants
either watched animated underwater scenes or looked at photographs of wildlife; in both cases, they remembered more information about the wider context than did ____________ participants, and were better able to recognize specific objects when they saw them in their original settings.
What does this finding show?
What kind of thinking is the first group operating under?
A) In one study, JAPANESE participants
either watched animated underwater scenes or looked at photographs
of wildlife; in both cases, they remembered more information about the wider context than did AMERICAN participants, and were better able to
recognize specific objects when they saw them in their original settings.
B) These results suggest that an American observer may look at a scene and see a specific object or person, whereas the Japanese observer is more likely to see and remember the larger context.
C) Holistic
84
A controversial area of cross-cultural research concerns the degree to which ________, compared with _________,
characteristically formulate and express independent and original
points of view.
a) A controversial area of cross-cultural research concerns the degree to which ASIANS, compared with AMERICANS,
characteristically formulate and express independent and original
points of view.
85
Various psychologists and educators have observed that __________ students seem drawn to fields that require rote study and memorization rather than independent thinking.
What are two explanations for this?
a) Various psychologists and educators have observed that ASIAN students seem drawn to fields that require rote study and memorization rather than independent thinking.
b1) This may occur because
self-expression is largely discouraged across Asia
b2) Asians are respectful B/C brought
up with the idea that humility ensures better learning. They are taught to question only after they have
understood others.
86
psychologists Shalom Schwartz
and Lilach Sagiv (1995) identified 10 values as candidates for being cross culturally relevant.
What are they?*
*I don't think we'll need to memorize this, she didn't have us memorize all the humanistic psychology areas, but a general knowledge is beneficial I think.
power
achievement
hedonism,
stimulation
self-direction
understanding
benevolence
tradition,
conformity
security
Fun Acronym to help: T(he) HUBCAPSSS
87
psychologists Shalom Schwartz
and Lilach Sagiv (1995) identified 10 values as candidates for being cross culturally relevant.
These values can be sorted into two dimensions, what are they?
1. openness to change–conservatism dimension
2. self-transcendence–self enhancement dimension
88
VALUES: The hope of this ongoing research is to develop not just a universal list of values, but to gain an understanding of...
The hope of this ongoing research is to develop not just a universal list of values, but to gain an understanding of...
a) ...how these values relate to each other and apply to decisions, behaviors, and cultural priorities.
89
VALUES: individualist cultural ethos emphasizes...(4)
liberty, freedom of choice, rights, and individual needs
just to contrast:
The collectivist style of moral reasoning imposes a group norm; the individualist style emphasizes independent and individual choice.
90
VALUES: collectivist cultural ethos emphasizes...(3)
obligations, reciprocity, and duties to the group.
just to contrast:
The collectivist style of moral reasoning imposes a group norm; the individualist style emphasizes independent and individual choice.
91
Define: Deconstructionism
Define again: Deconstructionism from a Cultural Psychological lens.
a) holds that reality has no meaning apart from what humans invent, or “construct.”
b) Translated into cultural psychology, deconstructionism implies that any answer to why a culture is the way it is would itself have to be based on the assumptions of another culture
92
What is the ecological model?
explain.
a) Ecology
/ \
Culture ---Mind and Behavior
^^meant to be a triangle but brainscape refuses
b) In this model, everything affects everything else. Ecology changes the culture, but culture also changes the ecology. Ecology changes the mind, but the mind changes the ecology, too. Perhaps most importantly, culture and the minds of the people who live in a culture change each
other over time as well.
93
Why might have Chinese Culture become Collectivistic, from a Ecological understanding?
the need, thousands of years ago, to develop complex agricultural projects and water systems that required the coordination of many people.
To succeed at these tasks, a culture had to develop in which people were willing to surrender some degree of self-interest in order to serve the common good.
94
Ecological explanation: North
Americans value independence and personal achievement more than Europeans (British and Germans) because North America was settled largely by...
voluntary immigrants who faced the task of developing a whole, new, seemingly empty continent*
*I hope I do not have to remind you it was very much NOT empty and that these settlers were invaders.
95
Jared Diamond has argued that European countries became dominant colonial powers around the world because of an accident of geography.
What were these 'accidents' that accelerated their growth? (2)
1. Ancient Europe had native
plants that were easily turned into reliable, food-giving crops and
animals that were readily domesticated to provide food and transportation (think of the POTATOES!)
2. ironic “advantage” is that at the same time Europeans began to travel around the world, at home they often lived
close together in filthy cities.
i.e. Those who survived developed wide immunity to diseases that were fatal to other peoples, such as Native Americans, who lived in cleaner environments.
96
Etiological: Cultures from
areas with historically high levels of pathogens also tend to promote ___________, presumably because this leads to behaviors—such as cleanliness and orderliness—that help to prevent the spread of disease.
These cultures have less _______ people!*
*not as important but a fun fact
a) Conformity
b) left-handed*
*not as important but a fun fact
97
In Truk, catching fish requires venturing out to sea, which is hazardous. The result is a culture in which the men who must do this learn to be brave, violent, and physical.
This is example of what in cultural personality differences? (2)
What is affecting this portion of personality?
a) Gender Roles & Aggression
b) Environment (accessibility to resource)
98
In Tahiti, fish can be caught easily in the home lagoon, which is not dangerous at all. The men in this culture tend to be gentle, to ignore insults, to be very slow to fight, and also to be respectful of women.
This is example of what in cultural personality differences? (2)
What is affecting this portion of personality?
a) Gender Roles & Aggression
b) Environment (accessibility to resource)
99
Are genetic differences likely to be the primary basis of cross-cultural differences?
Explain.
A) NO.
B) Almost all psychologists who study cultural differences assume the differences are mostly learned, not innate.
100
Define: Ethnocentrism
judging another culture
from the point of view of your own
101
Cultural differences in research tend to be exaggerated for at least three reasons.
List them.
1) cross-cultural psychology has a focus on finding differences.
2) Many studies of cultural differences use significance tests rather than examining effect sizes.*
3) Outgroup homogeneity bias
* If the cultural groups studied are large, as they often are, then statistically significant results—differences that would be unlikely if only chance were operating—are easy to find.
102
Define: Outgroup Homogeneity Bias
One’s own group naturally seems to contain individuals who differ
widely from each other. But members of groups to which one does not belong seem to be “all the same.”
103
To emphasize the variations between individuals within a culture is an a)________ view. To emphasize variations between whole cultures is a b)_______ view.
a) Individualistic
b) collectivistic
104
Define: cultural relativism
How does this relate to Ethnocentrism?
a) cultural relativism is the phenomenologically based idea that all views of reality are equally valid,
b) cultural Relativism states that it is presumptuous and
ethnocentric to judge any of them as good or bad.
105
bicultural identity integration (BII): What is the description of those who score HIGH?
Individuals who score high on BII see themselves as members of a combined culture that integrates aspects of both source cultures
Ex. seeing oneself as Japanese-Canadian
106
bicultural identity integration (BII): What is the description of those who score LOW?
Individuals who score low on
BII, by contrast, experience conflict between their two cultures and feel stress from being unsure which one they really belong to.
107
What is interesting about those who are bicultural, in terms of personality? (2)
Think in terms of Theoretical and Practical.
1) On a theoretical level, the
concept of two personalities within one individual.
2) On a practical level, many areas of the world are experiencing increased waves of immigration and a
major challenge in the coming years will be accommodating these
multicultural citizens into the larger society in a way that minimizes stress and conflict. Personality
psychology may be a useful tool for figuring out how to do this.
108
A)__________ may hope to feel positive low-arousal emotions
such as calm, whereas B)________ &_________ prefer positive high arousal emotions such as enthusiasm. Yet, when asked about their actual experience, they report feeling about the same
A) Asians
B) European & American
