Chapter 1, 2, 4, 7 Flashcards by Steven Smith

Is the actuation and exceptions of knowledge as a result of its survival overtime. “The way it has always been”

Tenacity

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The division of philosophy that investigates the nature and origin of knowledge

Epistemology

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Is the acquisition and acceptance of knowledge because it “feels right” or because it was provided by some extrasensory source

Intuition

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Is the acquisition and acceptance of knowledge as a result of its presentation by a respected source

Authority

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Is the development of knowledge through the application of the rules of logic

Rationalism

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Logic begins with one or more general rules (assumed to be accurate) that are applied to a specific case in order to develop a conclusion

Deductive

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Logic begins with the collection of several specific cases from which are developed some general rule

Inductive

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Logic begins with a specific case and then applies it to another specific case based on the similarities between the two

Analogical

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Attempts to establish a cause-effect link between events

Casual logic

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The development of knowledge through the observation of real events using the human senses

Empiricism

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The development of knowledge through a combination of rationalism and empiricism

Science

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Is a more recent school of inquiry, with its roots in the disciplines of sociology, anthropology, and philosophy

Phenomenology

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Does the consistently work in the world around us

Validity

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Influencing a theories value is the ability to test its validity through observation

Testability

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A theories value is its ability to make predictions about the world around us. While not all theories are designed to be predictive, a theory’s ultimate value is enhanced if the generative force regularly yields predictable effect

Predictability

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Problem development, methodological design, data collection, analyst of the data, integration of the findings. PD, MD, DC, AD, IF.

A model of the scientific method

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Research question is one that leaves the direction or form of a relationship between concepts open, simply inquiring into whether any relationship exists between-among them.

Open-ended research question

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Research questions specify the form or direction of the relationship between concepts, permitting the exploration of a particular variety of relationship.

Closed-ended research question

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Often abbreviated in research journals as H, is a deductive statement suggestion a predicted relationship between two or more communication concepts

Hypothesis

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Often abbreviated as RQ

Research question

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Is a declarative statement that suggest a relationship between-among two or more concepts, but does not specify the form or direction of that relationship

Two-tailed hypothesis

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This alternative to the two-tailed hypothesis provides more specificity, as it is a declarative statement suggesting a particular form or direction to the relationship between-among two or more communication concepts

One-tailed hypothesis

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These are the terms that represent the things, or concepts, in which the researcher has an interest.

Construct

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Once we have identified the constructs in the research problem our primary task becomes that of clearly defining those constructs by relating them to other constructs, or terms, a process known as

Conceptual definition

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As the conceptual definition evolves into increasingly primitive, agreed-on, terms, the process begins to blend with the process of creating a

Operational definition

At the point where we begin to operationally define the constructs, those constructs begin to become

Variables

Is the variable that is expected to influence a change in another variable

Independent variable

Is expected to change as a result of the actions of the independent variable

Dependent variable

This variety of linkage suggest that, as one construct varies, the other will change in a consistent manner. For example, if construct X increases in value, the construct Y will either increase in value or decrease in value at the same time.

Linear relationship

Suggest any relationship that is less direct then the linear form. It suggests that, as one construct varies the other also does, but in a less consistent manner.

Curvilinear relationship ( U relationship )

Suggest that, as one construct changes in value, either positively or negatively, the other construct will initially increase in value to some point where it will plateau, and then begin to decrease.

Inverted-U-relationship

Is the assignment of numerals to objects according to rules. We might simplify this slightly by suggesting that it is the classification of observations according to some specified rules.

Measurement

When's numerals have quantitative meaning associated with them, they become

Numbers

Four levels of measurement. A, O, I, R

Nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio

Consist of assignment of a name, label, or category to a variable, but with no quantification of the symbol intended.

Nominal

When the categories of a nominal measurement are developed, there must be some assurance that every observation will fit into one and only one of the categories

Mutually exclusive

All numbers are numerals but not the other way around

A second requirement of effective nominal categories is that they be___, or that every observation have one category in which it may be mapped. If I were to assess your idea of an ideal pet, and gave you the options of a dog, cat, or fish, I would not be___in my nominal mapping Scheme, especially if your choice was a hamster, gerbil, snake, or parakeet. Everyone has an option!

Collectively exhaustive

All the categories created in a nominal mapping scheme need to be evaluating and comparing the same attribute of the variables being mapped. If I were to code television shows according to the category news, drama, situation comedy, one and a half hour, and one hour, it is evident that I would be looking at two different attributes of the program. This is not helpful because we are looking at two measurements, program length, and program content. So create a new question.

Equivalent

Measurement retains all the characteristics of the nominal level, but with the addition that the numerals are ranked-ordered from some low to some high, though with no assumption of equal spacing between the ranked categories. The assignment of college students according to their class standing (freshman, Sophomore, junior, or senior). It is evident that these categories are ranked according to some criteria from a low to a high.

Ordinal

This level retains all of the characteristics of the previous two levels (nominal and ordinal), but includes for the first time an equally assumption, and the assignment of an arbitrary zero point.

Interval

This level retains all of the characteristics of the previous three levels (nominal, ordinal, interval) , But includes for the first time a true zero point. At this level, we not only rank-order observations with equal intervals between categories, but also include a zero point that represents the absence of an attribute.

Ratio

Mapping techniques, I, Q, O.

Interview, questionnaire, observation

Once the rules for mapping observations have been developed, consideration needs to be given to ensuring that the measurements are______, or yield accurate results.

Valid

Measurement validity is a significant component of investigations_____, the accuracy of an investigation's results as influenced by the planning, design, and conduct of the investigation.

Internal validity

One of the most easily established factors influencing the validity of a measurement scheme is measurement_____, the consistency with which a measure yields consistent results.

Reliability

The simplest technique for assessing reliability requires that a measurement instrument be administrated 2 or more times to the same group of respondents.

Test-retest approach

It is possible that the respondents will simply remember there earlier response, a form of subject

sensitization

If the investigator waits too long, it is possible that the respondents will have changed in some real way between administrations, known as subject

Maturation

Because of the sensitization and maturation concerns regarding the test-retest method, many investigators assess reliability using a set of_____. In this technique, two separate, but parallel, measures are administrated to a set of respondents. _______ are instruments that attempt to map exactly the same constructs but using different items.

Parallel forms

Closely related to parallel forms technique is the_____. A single measurement instrument is created using two or more parallel items for each construct to be mapped. In other words-if we were creating a questionnaire we would include two or more parallel items to assess each construct of interest. The result would be very much the same as the development of parallel forms in the previous technique except that all items would be included in the same questionnaire

Split half Technique

Assessing participants responses on a scale. Ex- BU is a good school, Strong Disagree 1, Disagree 2, Neutral 3, Agree 4, Strong Agree 5.

Likert-Type Scale

Scales bounded by bipolar adjectives. Ex- Attractiveness, Unattractive 1,2,3,4,5 Charming, Ugly 1,2,3,4,5 Beautiful

Semantic Differential Scale

Two or more observers are trained in use of the measurement scheme and assigned to observe and map the same events.

Intercoder Reliability

Often called face validity, asks whether a measurement scheme accurately reflects the characteristics of the construct being investigated.

Content Validity

Most commonly used technique... In general, A should be greater than .70 .70=Reliable

Cronbach's Alpha (a)

How do we asses content validity? We use a _____ approach which is a group of people to look at your work.

Panel Approach

Measurement's ability to predict the expected future outcome. Ex- SAT Score

Predictive Validity

Measurement reliability is a MUST for measurement validity but reliability does not guarantee validity.

Accurate findings about the phenomena under investigation for the particular groups of people studied.

Internal validity

Events which occurred during the study, influence participants behavior with in the study. Changes in the environment.

History

And initial measurement in a research study influences the subsequent measurement. Pretest affects posttest.

Test sensitization

Instruments wearout (out of date)

Instrument Decay

Subjects change their behavior because they know that they are being observed.

Hawthorne effect

Participants are being self-selected because people are self-selected, the study may not be good to represent the whole population. Could occur during the recruitment process.

Self-selection Bias

Natural changes that occur within participants over the course of the study. Tired, sick, bad day, sad, happy. Physiological/psychology.

Maturation

Dropping out from the study. Lost interest, forgot, do not care.

Attrition/mortality

Nonhuman elements. YouTube, blogs, websites.

Data

Participants influence each other. Do not speak about what is going on in the study until it's over.

Inter-participant bias

Problems with researchers methodology

Personal attribute effect, research bias. PA, RB

Problems with researchers methodology

Researchers characteristics influence participants behaviors. People may not be honest with you, your personality, outfit, ethnicity, gender.

Personal attribute effect

Accidentally informs the participants of what he/she expects. Do not say anything about your data.

Researcher bias

Type your pre-a validated questions and instructions.

Script

Hire a researcher (or assistant) who can conduct the study. The hired person doesn't need to know the hypothesis/research questions.

Double-blind study

Relationship between sample and population. Population = college students, sample = group of people that represent population.

External validity

The results of the study can be "generalizable" to population.

Good external validity

Representation

Generalizable

Representation