Chapter 1-3 6 and 10 Flashcards
Critical Thinking and Research Methods The Brain Neurons and Neurotransmitters Classical and Operant Conditioning Incentives and motivation (127 cards)
1
Q
Motivation
A
Anything that energizes, directs, or sustains behavior
2
Q
Describe the difference between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation
A
Extrinsic motivation are directives toward an external goal
Intrinsic motivation are drives toward an internal value or pleasure
3
Q
Describe the difference between ratio and interval in reinforcement schedules
A
- ratio is based on a number # of responses
- interval is based on specific unit of time
4
Q
Needs
A
Basic biological needs create drives
5
Q
Describe the difference between fixed and variable
A
Fixed— reinforcer given consistently at a constant rate
Variable— reinforcer provided at different rates or times
6
Q
Explain thermoregulation
A
Mammals must maintain constant body temperature for survival, how we sustain homeostasis
Physiological responses Hot= sweat, cold= shiver
Psych= hot- drink water, cold- put on a sweater
7
Q
Fixed interval
A
Feedback after a certain period of Time (paycheck every 2 weeks)
8
Q
Variable interval
A
Feedback at a random amount of time within a period of time (Drug testing at the Olympics)
9
Q
Incentives
A
Motivate complex behaviors beyond basic internal drives
10
Q
Fixed ratio
A
Feedback after a fixed number of responses or actions, and rate of reinforcement is unchanged
11
Q
Variable ratio
A
Feedback after some random/averag number of responses. (Winning the lottery between 1-100 tries, yet unknown when)
12
Q
Describe Observational learning
A
Imitation and cultural learning— we learn through replicating behaviors from what we observe in the media or culture
13
Q
Yerkes-Dodson Law
A
Psychological principle that although challenging tasks increases arousal/incentives moderately, more arousal/incentives can impair performance.
14
Q
Describe learning
A
Learning is a relatively enduring change in behavior, resulting from experience. It is based on associating events in time.
15
Q
Classical conditioning
A
Is associating a predictive cue or new event with an automatic reflex.
16
Q
Self-regulation
A
Allows adjustment of behavior to improve outcomes
17
Q
Neutral stimulus
A
Non- associated cue with any response initially, before any conditioning occurs
18
Q
Describe how timing matters in classical conditioning
A
Because CS should be predictive of the US, there can not be a prolonged delay in the CS and US.
19
Q
Extinction
A
When a learned reaction (CR) extinguished because the CS no longer predicts the US
20
Q
Acquisition
A
Pairing between CS and US, through one or may trials
20
Q
spontaneous recovery
A
When the extinguished CR reemerges when CS is presented once again
21
Q
***Describe the Rescorla Wagner model of classical conditioning
A
Rescorla Wagner states that animals learn to expect that some controlled stimuli (CS) are better predictors of the (US) than others. Whether the conditioned association is acquired, extinguished, or maintains is determined by which a US is expected or surprising
22
Q
What other real world factors does classical conditioning effect
A
- Conditioned Taste Aversion– one trial, one thing makes you sick, conditioned to not eat it
- Phobias
- Addiction– sensory or envriontmental cues can increase drug cravings
23
Q
reward Prediction Error
A
a difference between expected outcome and actual one, strengthening or weakening the CS US association
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Stimulus generalization
learn to associate stimulus similar but not identical to CS that signals US [dog getting a reward even though it heard a freq similar, not same to the CS]
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Stimulus discrimination
learn to associate similar stimuli that do not signal the US [dog NOT getting a reward even though it heard a freq similar, not same to the CS]
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High order conditioning
AKA second-order conditioning, occurs when a new conditioned stimulus becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus, which has already been associated with a CS. After subsequent trials, the second-order stimulus produces the CR without the need for the original CS.
27
Distinguish between classical and operant conditioning
Classical conidtioning is a learned association between a predictive cue and an automatic reflex, however it is limited in that it produces reflexive, not goal-directed behaviors. Operant conditioning produces these goal directed behaviors through teaching certain actions that produce certain consequences.
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Law of effect
any behavior that leads to a satisfying state of affairs is likely to occur again
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Operant conditioning
A learning process in which the consequences of an action determine
the likelihood that it will be performed in the future
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Reinforcer
stimulus that increases response likelihood
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Punishment
stimulus that decreases likelihood that response will be repeated
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Positive reinforcer
increasing probability of repeated response through the addition of a pleasant stimulus or reward
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Negative reinforcer
increasing probability of repeated response through the removal of an unpleasant stimulus
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Positive punishment
decreasing the probability of a repeated response through the addition of an unpleasant stimulus
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Negative punishment
decreasing the probability of a repeated response through the removal of a pleasant stimulus
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Discuss the operant chamber
AKA skinner box, an animal, usually a rat, is placed in the box where it must learn to activate levers or respond to light or sound stimuli for reward.
37
Define Shaping
shaping is reinforcing behaviors that become increasingly similar to the desired behavior
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Distinguish between primary and secondary reinforcers
primary stimuli necessary for survival (food or sex)
secondary stimuli don't satisfy a biological need, but can also signal the primary stimuli (compliments, clicker)
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Distinguish between the two basic divisions of the nervous system
Central nervous system (CNS)-- brain and spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)-- somatic and autonomic nerv. system
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Describe the function of the nervous system
coordinates information from the environment to the body using the basic unit, neurons
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Identify the positional order of neuronal cell structures
Dendrite, cell body, axon, terminal buttons, and synapse
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Synapse
where chemical communication between neurons occur
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terminal buttons
release chemical signals from neuron to synpase
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axon
where info from outgoing signals is transmitted to terminal buttons
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cell body
where info is collecteed and integrated
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dendrites
receive info from other neurons
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What are the two basic receiving components of neurons
dendrites and cell body
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What are the two basic sending components of neurons
axon and terminal buttons
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How do neurons communicate
Neural signaling is electrical and chemical
- Electrical ions
- Neurotransmitters= chemical
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Ion channel
manipulates neural potential
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Resting potential
cell is permeable to potassium ions, not sodium ions, or potassium is inside and sodium is outside
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What triggers the synapse?
an action potential triggers the presynaptic neuron to release neurotransmitters. These molecules bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell and make it more or less likely to fire an action potential.
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Excitatory post-synaptic potential (EPSP)
depolarization happens and sodium rushes into the cell from outside the cell, positively charging it
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Inhibitory post-synaptic potential (IPSP)
hyper-polarization occurs where sodium leaves the cell, and the neuron becomes negatively charged
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significance of IPSP and EPSP
affect the probability that the postsynaptic cell will generate action potential
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action potential
triggered by depolarization occurring above a certain threshold. these are large and fast.
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All or none principle
The size of the response stays consistent, there won't be any significantly stronger AP or weaker
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Chemical release of neurotransmitter happens in the ...
synapse
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Lock and key model
every neurotransmitter binds with a specific receptor
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name two common neurotransmitters
Glutamate (excitatory) and GABA (inhibatory)
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Describe the difference between agonist and antagonist
Ag: drugs and toxins that enhance neurotransmitters
Ant: drugs and toxins that black neurotransmitter effect (
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Three ways that neurotransmitter release is regulates
reuptake, enzyme deactivation, and autoreceptors
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What is in the hindbrain
brain stem and cerebellum
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What is in the subcortical structures of the brain
thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system (hippocampus and amygdala), basal ganglia
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what is in the cerebral cortex
Frontal lobe, parietal lobe, temporal lobe, occipital lobe
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What is the brain stem responsible for
basic survival; heart rate, breathing, blood pressure
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What is the cerebellum responsible for
motor coordination, balance, motor learning
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Pons damage
damage to the brainstem in which patient cannot voluntary control muscles
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What is the hypothalamus responsible for
Motivation and regulation of drives, thermoregulation sex orient. (Interacts with endocrine system)
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What is the thalamus responsible for
relay station for motor and sensory info and regulates conscious alertness
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What is the hippocampus responsible for
Long term memory
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What is the amygdala responsible for
emotional learning, spec. fear
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What is the basal ganglia responsible for
motor control, reward & motivation (dopamine +reinforcement learning]
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What is the specialization of the brain's left hemisphere
language
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What is the specialization of the brain's right hemisphere
spatial, visual, motor awareness
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Corpus Callosum
bridge between two hemispheres of the brain
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Two ways of conceptualizing the organization of brain functions
Distributed: entire brain contributes equally to function
Localized: certain areas create specialized function
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Brocas Area
neurological substrate for language, or region of the brain responsible for language production (not comprehensive abilities)
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Significance to Phineas Gage damage
His behavior after the tamping iron was blown through his skull linked the frontal lobe to personality and decision making
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causal interference
ability to give insight into cause and effect
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descriptive research
observation without relating or manipulating variables, low causal interference
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correlational research
examines natural relationship between variables
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Why and when is correlational research used
used when not ethical or possible to perform an experimental manipulation, AKA trauma or war/combat
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limits of descriptive research
observer bias and reactivity (knowing you are watched changes your behavior)
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limits of correlational research
directionality (does b cause a or vice versa), Third variable (non-confidence that an unobserved outside variable hasn't influenced existing variables)
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Experimental research
highest causal interference; manipulate variable
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case study
examination of a small number of unusual people
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sample
subset of the population
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selection bias in statistics and population value data
When a "random" sample isn't really random
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Convenience sampling
rather than taking a random sample of the wider population, take an available sub group, like college students
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How do psychologists guard against group confounds?
random assignment: guard against systematic differences between groups
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What is the goal for statistical measuring in psychology
for results to be reliable and valid
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Describe descriptive statistics
Stats measuring the central tendency and variability of data. Central tendency is teh value which data is clustered, including taking the mean, mode, median of data. Variability is the spread of values around a cluster, which is measured by standard deviation
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inferential stats
generalizing from sample results to the population
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three major principles of the scientific method
testable hypothesis, structured empirical observation, replication to verify.
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Where is the primary motor cortex
Frontal lobe
95
Functions of frontal lobe
Motor execution and planning
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Functions of parietal lobe
Attention
97
Functions of Occipital lobe
Early visual processing
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Functions of temporal lobe
Auditory and high level vision
99
Sensorimotor homnoculos
AKA cortical mapping: This mapping of our sense of touch onto the cortex gives us a representation of the body
100
Neural plasticity
Plasticity is the brain’s
capacity to continually change in response to a person’s environment. Following an injury in the cortex, the surrounding gray matter may assume the function of the damaged area,
Phantom limb syndrome- if hand is missing, the next region of the body expands to accommodate.
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Cortical mapping significance
Neural mapping location represents the same organization seen on your body
102
meditation
when a person focuses attention on an external object, internal event, or sense of awareness to create an altered consciousness.
103
How does meditation affect cognitive processing, brain function, and the immunse system
greater stress reduction, more improvement in attention, and greater brain electrical activity
104
Suppose a person meditating focuses on thoughts of waves rolling onto
a beautiful beach. Is the person practicing concentrative meditation or
mindfulness meditation?
concentrative: the person is focusing on a specific image
105
concentrative vs mindfulness
concentrative= focus on one thing (breathing or mental image)
mindfulness- thoughts flow freely, paying attention but not reacting to them
106
Does showing that long-term meditators have less age-related change in
brain structure through cross-sectional studies prove meditation reduces neural aging and decline?
No. Correlation does not equal causation. Those who practice
meditation may also have other lifestyle differences that affect brain aging. Use longitudinal studies to prove
107
What is flow in psychology
an optimal state of being deeeply immersed in a completely satisfying experience, and happens automatically. Characterized by losing track of time, forgetting about problems, etc...
108
How can flow potentially be negative
Potential flow activities such as sports or music may help
people escape thinking about their problems. Escapism; when people
choose to escape the self solely to avoid engaging with life:
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Hypnosis
is a social interaction where a person experiences changes in memory, perception and/or voluntary action
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posthypnotic suggestions
when the hypnotist suggests that the listener will experience a change in memory or behavior after a session, psychological evidence tells that they can subtly influence behavior.
111
sociocognitive theory of
hypnosis
hypnotized people behave as they expect hypnotized people to behave,
even if those expectations are faulty
112
neodissociation theory of hypnosis
views the hypnotic state as an
altered, trance like state in which conscious awareness is separated, or dissociated, from other aspects of consciousness
113
Can everyone be hypnotized?
Hypnotic suggestibility varies between individuals and is related to personal qualities such as being focused, imaginative, easily absorbed, and willing to participate.
114
psychoactive drugs
s cause changes in mood, awareness, thoughts, feelings, or behavior. These drugs
change the brain’s neurochemistry by activating neurotransmitter systems: either by imitating it or changing the activity of it
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stimulants
are drugs that increase behavioral and mental activity. They stimulate, or
heighten, activity of the central nervous system, interfering with the normal reuptake of dopamine. Improve mood but disrupt sleep
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depressants
reduce behavioral and mental activity by
depressing the central nervous system. ex: alcohol
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opoids
mimic the action of the neurotransmitter endorphins that help relieve pain ex: narcotics
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hallucinogens
s change how users experience the world around them, including distorting time. Ex; lsd
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amphetamine vs methamphetamines'
amphetamine increase dopamine in the synapse, reducing fatigue and producing wakefulness. methamphetamines break down into amphetamine
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marijuana can be characterized as a
stimulant, depressant, or hallucinogen
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What type of drug is in Adderall, used to treat ADHD?
an amphetamine (a stimulant)
122
alcohol
the second-most commonly used psychoactive drug throughout the
world after caffeine, is a depressant that inhibits neural activity by activating
GABA receptors.
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women do not.... alcohol as quickly as ... do, thus can be an explanation of why ... are more likely to become ...
metabolize; men; men; binge drinkers
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