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Intro to Neuroscience (Chap 1-5) > Chapter 1 > Flashcards

Chapter 1 Flashcards

1
Q

Biological Psychology

A

Study of the biological bases of psychological processes and behavior
Relates behavior to bodily processes
Goal: Understand biology underlying behavior & experience
aka Behavioral Neuroscience

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2
Q

Neuroscience

A

Study of the nervous system and brain

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3
Q

Interactions between brain and behavior are…

A

recipricol

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4
Q

5 Major perspectives to understand biological basis of behavior

A

DESCRIBING behavior (correlation)
Studying EVOLUTION of behavior (cross species pespective)
Observing DEVELOPMENT of behavior& biological characteristics over life span
Study biological MECHANISMS of behavior (lesion studies)
Study APPLICATIONS of biological psychology (create interventions once understand)

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5
Q

2 Emphases from Darwin’s theory of evolution

compare species in order to study evolution of brain and behavior

A

CONTINUITY of behavior & biological proccesses (result of common ancestor among species)
SPECIES-SPECIFIC DIFFERENCES in behavior & bio that’ve evolved as adaptions to diff environments

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6
Q

conserved

A

reffering to a trait that’s passed on from a common ancestor to 2+ species

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7
Q

ontogeny

A

process where an individual changes in the course of its lifetime
grows up & grows old
observing this gives clues to individual’s functions & mechanisms (can then speculate on bigger picture)

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8
Q

devlopment

A

behaviors that change over the lifespan

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9
Q

convergent evolution

A

similar appearances that come from species that have evolved independently and dont share a common ancestor

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10
Q

Major aim of biological psychology

A

examine body mechanisms that make particular behaviors possible

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11
Q

3 approaches used by behavioral psychologists to understand the relationship between brain & behavior

A

Somatic intervention
Behavioral intervention
Correlation

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12
Q

Somatic Intervention

A

Manipulating body structure or function & looking for resulting changes in behavior
Most common approach to finding relations between body + behavior
Somatic intervention= independent var
Behavioral affect= dependent var
“Manipulating body-may affect behavior”
ex: hormone given to some animals, but not others & then behaviors of 2 groups are compared

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13
Q

Independent variable

A

factor manipulated by experimenter

Must have 2+ levels (control, experimental)

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14
Q

Dependent variable

A

factor that experimenter measures to monitor a change in response to the manipulation of independent var
changes based on independent variable
MEASURE IT

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15
Q

main question of biological psychology

A

look for connections between brain and behavior

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16
Q

behavioral intervention

A

Intervening in the behavior of an organism & looking for resultant changes in body structure or function
“experience affects the body”
psychological intervention
approach to finding relations between body and behavior
opposite of somatic intervention
behavior = independent var
change in body= dependent var
ex: expose person to visual stimulus provokes changes in electrical activity and blood flow

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17
Q

correlation

A

find extent to which given body measure varies with a given behavioral measure
“covariation”
no proof of causal relationship or direction of correlation
ex: are people with larger brains more intelligent than people with smaller ones

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18
Q

how can experience affect neurons

A

can affect the number size of neurons OR connections between them

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19
Q

neuroplasticity

A

ability of nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment
(during development and adulthood)
other individuals can affect the physical structure of brain
ex: dendritic spines changing shape in seconds

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20
Q

how does social experience affect brain structure

A

socially induced psychological expectation affects the magnitude of the brain response
(what you’re told before touching hot water)

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21
Q

reductionism

A

scientific strategy
break system down into increasingly smaller parts in order to understand it
(closer and closer to atomic/molecular level)

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22
Q

levels of analysis

A 
scientist may use these to try and understand behavior (reductionsism)...
social
organ
neural systems
brain region
circut
cellular
synaptic
molecular
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23
Q

how many people in the world suffer from psychiatric and neurological disorders

A

1/5

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24
Q

what percent of lab rats make up the mammals used in research

A

93%

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25
Q

what’d they do to brains in olden times

A

threw it out because only considered it to be a cooling unit, heart was seen as source of mental act
early egyptian + greek scholars

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26
Q

Renaissance anatomist…

A

emphasized shape and appearance of external surface of brain
artists
start to see brain as maybe important

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27
Q

Descartes

A

concept of pineal gland relating mind and body
saw brain as machine
proposed concept of spinal reflexes and their neural pathways
didnt make claims public out of fear

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28
Q

dualism

A

Descartes

nonmaterial soul & material body

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29
Q

phrenology

A

belief that bumps on the skull reflect enlargements of brain regions responsible for certain behavioral functions
concept of localization of specific brain functions
19th cent

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30
Q

Broca

A

when finally began to accept concept of localization
broca showed that language ability is restricted to a small area,
based on patient with damage in that region
lesion studies are important to localization

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31
Q

consciousness

A

State of awareness of one’s own existence and experience
topmost parts of brain are responsible for what we experience moment to moment
permits us to plan
deepest parts of brain are important for arousal

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32
Q

fundamental attribution error

A

when we do something, blame what we did on external factors

for others’ actions, we blame it on who they are as a person

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33
Q

neuron

A

Nerve cell
Basic Unit of the nervous system
Contacts other neurons at synapses
Composed of a cell body, dendrite (receptive extensions), & an axon (transmitting ext)
receives inputs, integrates them, & distributes processed info to others
Function: to talk to other neurons

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34
Q

glial cells

A

non-neuronal brain cells
provide structural & nutritional support to the brain & neurons
make additional contributions to info processing
increase the strength of the postsynaptic potential

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35
Q

Golgi neuron thought

A

they’re continuous with one another

form a nearly endless network of connected tubes through which info flowed

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36
Q

Cajal’s thought about neurons

A

come very close to one another, but not quite continuous

at each point of contact between neurons, a tiny gap keeps cells seperate

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37
Q

neuron doctrine

A

hypothesis that the brain is composed of separate neurons that are distinct structurally, metabolically, & functionally
composed of independent cells
information is transmitted from cell to cell across tiny gaps/ synapses
emerged from Golgi & Cajal’s studies

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38
Q

synapse

A

tiny gap between neurons
where information is passed from one to the other
demonstrated and named by Sir Charles Sherrington
human brain has 10^5 synapses

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39
Q

Neuron’s 4 structural divisions specialized for information proessing

A

Input zone
Integration Zone
Conduction zone
Output zone

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40
Q

mitochondrion

A

cellular organellein neuron

provides metabolic energy for cell’s processes

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41
Q

neuron’s contain

A

mitochondria
cell nucleus
ribosomes

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42
Q

cell nucleus

A

spherical central structure of a cell
contains the chromosomes & genetic instructions
organelle in the nucleus

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43
Q

ribosomes

A

structures in the cell body
where genetic information is translated to produce proteins
organelle in the nucleus

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44
Q

dendrites

A 
one of the extensions of the cell body
are the receptive surfaces of the neuron
serve as an INPUT ZONE
synapse lands on dendrites
increase receptive surface of neuron & increase amount of info it can take in
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45
Q

input zone

A

part of neuron specialized for info processing
RECEIVES INFO from other neurons of specialized sensory structures
corresponds to cell’s dendrites

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46
Q

cell body

A

region of neuron
defined by the presence of the cell nucleus
INTEGRATION ZONE
aka soma

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47
Q

integration zone

A

part of neuron specialized for info processing
initiates nerve electrical activity
where inputs are combines & transformed
corresponds to axon hillock

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48
Q

Structures present in all neurons

A

dendrite
cell body
axon terminal
axon hillock

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49
Q

axon hilllock

A 
part of neuron
start of axon
where cell decides whether or not it will have an action potential
where action potential will start 
INTEGRATION ZONE
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50
Q

axon

A

single extension from the neuron
carries nerve impulses from cell body to other neurons
leads away from cell body
CONDUCTION ZONE

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51
Q

conduction zone

A

part of neuron specialized for info processing
where nerve’s electrical signal may be actively propagated
transmit’s cells output information in form of electrical impulses
corresponds to cell’s axon

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52
Q

axon terminal

A

part of a neuron
forms a synapse on a neuron or other target cell
specialized swelling at axon end
OUTPUT ZONE

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53
Q

output zone

A

part of neuron specialized for info processing
where cell sends information to another cell
transmits neuron’s activity to other cells at synapses
corresponds to axon terminals

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54
Q

2 traditional cell stains

A

golgi stains

nissl stains

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55
Q

golgi stain

A

first technique available
histological stain
fills small portion of neurons with a dark silver based precipitate (stains 1-3% of neuron)
includes details like dendritic spines
tells about overall structure, but misses number
useful to identify: type and shape of cells

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56
Q

histology

A

microscopic analysis of cells and tissues

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57
Q

nissl stain

A

histological stain
outlines all cell bodies
dyes are attracted to RNA, which encircles the nucleus
used to measure cell body size & density of cells
ex: How many neurons in one area of brain?

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58
Q

autoradiography

A

histological technique
shows the distribution of radioactive chemicals in tissues
cells are manipulated into taking pics of themselves
can be done in vitro or in viro (alive or dead)
can quantify receptors in tissue

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59
Q

immunocytochemistry

A

method for detecting particular protein in tissues
antibody recognizes and binds to protein
chemical methods used to leave visible reaction product around each antibody
is a way to label cells with an attribute in common
reveals only the cells that were making the specific protein
shows where current proteins are active

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60
Q

in situ hybridization

A

finds neurons w specific mRNA sequences
method for detecting particular RNA transcripts in tissue sections
use nucleotide probe (complementary to + will hybridize w transcript of interest)
uses radioactively labeled lengths of nucleic acid

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61
Q

immediate early genes (IEG)

A

genes that show rapid but transient increases in expression in cells that’ve just become activated
find where site of learning is
identifies brain regions active during certain behaviors
ex: c-fos

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62
Q

c-fos

A

immediate early gene

commonly used to identify activated neurons

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63
Q

Santiago Ramon and Canal

A

first to use stain technique to investigate

known for drawings using golgi stain

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64
Q

why it’s difficult to trace pathways in the nervous system

A

fibers w different destinations travel together (hard to detangle one set from rest)
axons have smaller diameter than cell bodies
axons from different sources look alike
billions of axons in brain

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65
Q

common ways to trace pathways in the brain

A

damage neuron of interest & look for degenerating axons
inject radioactively labeled amino acids into collection of cell bodies

horseradish peroxidase (HRP)
anterogade labeling
retrograde labeliing

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66
Q

horseradish peroxidase (HRP)

A

enzyme found in horseradish
used to determine cells of origin of a particular set of axons
tract tracer
a trace pathway in the brain

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67
Q

anterograde labeling

A

radioactive molecules are taken up by cell, incorporated into proteins, & transported to tips of axons
used if want to know what a specific area is connected to
a trace pathway in the brain

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68
Q

retrograde labeling

A

tract tracer is taken up into the axon at the terminals & transported back to cell body where it’s readily visualized
uses horseradish perioxidase
used to see all of the different areas communicating with one area
a trace pathway in the brain

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69
Q

transsynapticly

A

jump across synapses

work their way “upstream” back toward higher levels of the nervous system

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70
Q

ways neurons can be classified

A

by shape, size, function

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71
Q

3 principal types of nerve cells

A 
way to classify neurons by shape
multipolar
bipolar
unipolar
in all 3 types, the dendrites are in the input zone
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72
Q

multipolar neuron

A

most common type
many dendrites
single axon

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73
Q

bipolar neurons

A

single dendrite at one end
single axon at other end of cell
common in sensory systems (vision)

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74
Q

unipolar neuron

A

single extension that branches in 2 directions after leaving cell body (thought of as axon)
(one end input zone, other end is output zone)
transmits touch information from body to spinal cord

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75
Q

3 ways to classify by neuron function

A

motoneurons
sensory neurons
interneurons

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76
Q

motoneurons

A

nerve cell that transmits motor messages stimulating a muscle or gland
have long axons reaching out to synapse on muscles which cause them to contract in response to commands from the brain

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77
Q

quasi independent variable

A

something the experimenter is not fully in control of that can affect the dependent variable

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78
Q

operational definition

A

define construct in a way that allows us to manipulate or measure it

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79
Q

how can behavior be described

A

in terms of acts/ processes

in terms of results/functions

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80
Q

difference between ontogeny & neural plasticity

A

ontogeny: changes for all across lifespan

neural plasticity: changes to some individuals due to specific experiences

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81
Q

sensory neurons

A

neuron that’s directly affected by changes in the environment
(light, odor, touch)
carry message from periphery –> spinal cord + brain
diverse shapes

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82
Q

interneuron

A

receives input and sends output to other neurons
majority of neurons
make up the hugely complex networks and circuits that perform the complex functions of the brain
axons are short

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83
Q

arborization

A

elaborate branching of the dendrites of some neurons

reflects the complexity of the neuron’s info processing system

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84
Q

presynaptic

A

reffering to region of the synase that releases neurotransmitter

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85
Q

postsynaptic

A

refferring to the region of a synapse that recieves and responds to neurotransmitter

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86
Q

3 principal components of a synapse

A

presynaptic membrane
postsynaptic membrane
synaptic cleft

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87
Q

presynaptic membrane

A

specialized membrane
on axon terminal of the neuron
transmits information by releasing neurotransmitter

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88
Q

postsynaptic membrane

A

specialized membrane
on the surface of the cell
receives info by responding to neurotransmitter from presynaptic neuron
lies on surface of dendrite/ cell body of postsynaptic neuron

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89
Q

synaptic cleft

A

space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic elements

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90
Q

synaptic vesicles

A

small, spherical structure that contains molecules of neurotransmitter

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91
Q

neurotransmitter

A

chemical released from the presynaptic axon terminal
serves as the basis of communication between neurons
communicates w postsynaptic cell
used to produce electrical changes in postsynaptic neuron

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92
Q

receptor

A

protein that binds & reacts to molecules of a neurotransmitter or hormone
released neurotransmitter interacts with postsynaptic recpetors after crossing cleft

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93
Q

effect of neurotransmitter interacting with postsynaptic receptor

A

=electrical changes in postsynaptic cell

= affects likelihood of postsynaptic neuron releasing own neurotransmitter

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94
Q

contains high density of receptors

A

postsynaptic membrane

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95
Q

neural plasticity

A

ability of the nervous system to change in response to experience or the environment
configuration of synapses on neuron’s dendrites & cell body is constantly changing
allows number & structure of dendrite spines to be rapidly altered by experience

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96
Q

axon hillock

A

cone-shaped area
from which the axon originates out of the cell body
functionally the integration zone of the neuron (gathers info from all synapses)

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97
Q

axon collateral

A

branch of an axon from a single neuron

allows neuron to influence many presynaptic cells

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98
Q

innervate

A

provide neural input/influence

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99
Q

dendritic spine

A

studded on dendrites & increase surface area

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100
Q

axonal transport

A

transportation of materials from the
neuronal cell body to distant regions in the dendrites + axon
& from axon terminals back to the cell body
transports materials both ways

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101
Q

2 different functions of axons

A

rapid transmission of electical signals along the outside of axon
slower transportation of substances inside the axon

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102
Q

axons versus dendrites

A 
AXON
one per neuron w many terminal branches 
uniform diameter until branches
axon hillock
covered w myelin
range from tiny to several meters long
DENDRITE 
many per neuron
diameter tapers progressively toward end
no axon hillock or myelin sheath
much shorter than axons
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103
Q

glial cells affect neuronal functioning

A

communicate with each other + other neurons
provide neurons w raw materials & chemical signals that alter neuronal structure
insulate + isolate synapses to prevent one from affecting the other

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104
Q

4 forms of glial cells

A

astrocyte
microglial cell
oligodendrocytes
schwann cells

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105
Q

astrocyte

A

star shaped glial cell
has numerous extensions that run in all directions, weaving among neurons
recieve synapses directly from neurons
surround + monitor activity of nearby neuronal synapses & recieve neuronal input
communicate w neurons to modulate the neuron’s responses
involved in formation of new synapses

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106
Q

microglial cell

A

extremely small glial cells
remove cellular debris from injured or dead cells
“brain’s cleanup crew” & damage control
key component of neural pain systems

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107
Q

oligodendrocyte

A

type of glial cell
forms myelin in the central nervous system
performs myelination within brain & spinal cord
provides myelin beads to many nearby axons

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108
Q

schwann cell

A

glial cell
forms myelin in the peripheral nervous system
perfroms myelination in rest of body (not brain + spinal cord)

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109
Q

myelination

A

process of myelin formation
glial cells wrap sections of axon in layers of myelin, giving it the appearence of a string of slender beads
causes large increase in speed that electrical signals pass down the axon
occurs for 10-15 years after birth

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110
Q

myelin

A

fatty insulation around an axon
formed by glial cells
improves the speed of conduction of nerve impulses

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111
Q

nodes of Ranvier

A

gap between successive segments of the myelin sheath where the axon membrane is exposed
the uninsulated patches
between adjacent beads

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112
Q

edema

A

swelling of the tissue in response to injury, especally in the brain
how astrocytes respond to brian injury
this damages neurons and is responsible for many symptoms of brain injuries

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113
Q

multiple scelerosis

A

“many scars”
disorder characterized by widespread degeneration of myelin
causes axons to lose outer insulation

114
Q

gross neuroanatomy

A

anatomical features of the nervous system that are apparent to the naked eye

115
Q

peripheral nervous system

A

portion of nervous system that includes all the nerves + neurons outside the brain and spinal cord
contains nerves

116
Q

central nervous system

A

portion of the nervous system that includes the brain and spinal cord

117
Q

nerves

A

collection of axons bundled together outside the central nervous system

118
Q

motor nerve

A

nerve that conveys neural activity to muscle tissue & causes it to contract
info from spinal cord + brain –> muscles, organs, glands

119
Q

sensory nerves

A

nerve that conveys sensory info from the peripheral
–> central nervous system
info from body –> brain + spinal cord

120
Q

3 peripheral nervous system’s nerves

A

cranial nerves
spinal nerves
autonomic nervous system

121
Q

cranial nerves

A

nerve that’s connected directly to the brain
nerve of peripheral nervous system
12 pairs
some primarily sensory & others motor

122
Q

spinal nerves

A

nerve that emerges from the spinal cord
aka somatic
nerve of peripheral nervous system
31 pairs

123
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

part of the peripheral nervous system
supplies neural connections to glands & smooth muscles of internal organs
nerves that primarily control the internal organs

124
Q

autonomic ganglia

A

collections s of nerve cell bodies that are found in various locations & innervate the major organs
belong to autonomic division of peripheral nervous system

125
Q

preganglionic

A

referring to neurons in the autonomic nervous system that run from
CNS –> autonomic ganglia

126
Q

postganglionic

A

referring to neurons in autonomic nervous system that run from
autonomic ganglia –> various targets in the body

127
Q

3 major divisions of autonomic nervous system

A

sympathetic nervous system
parasympathetic nervous system
enteric nervous system

128
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

part of the autonomic nervous system
arises from thoracic & lumbar spinal cord
send axons short distance
innervates sympathetic chain of autonomic ganglia
uses norepinephrine (no rest)
prepares body for action (heart rate quickens, blood pressure increase)
stimulates ejaculation
STAND UP
fight or flight

129
Q

sympathetic chain

A

chain of ganglia that run along each side of the spinal column
part of sympathetic nervous system
postganglionic cells of synaptic chain course through body and innervate all major organ systems

130
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A 
part of the autonomic nervous system
arises from both cranial nerves + sacral spinal cord 
helps body to relax, recuperate 
axons travell a longer distance before terminating in parasympathetic ganglia
uses acetylcholine (ace sleep)
stimulates erection
PAIR OF SOUP
rest and digest
131
Q

what parasympathetic ganglia do in comparison to sympathetic

A

parasympathetic ganglia not collected in a chain, they are dispersed throughout body

132
Q

norepinephrine

A

no rest
neurotransmitter
produced & released by sympathetic postganglionic neurons
used to accelerate organ activity
also produced in brainstem + found in projections throughout brain

133
Q

acetylcholine

A

ace sleep
neurotransmitter produced & released by parasympathetic postganglionic neurons, motor neurons, & neurons throughout the brain
tends to slow down activity

134
Q

enteric nervous system

A

part of autonomic nervous system
extensive meshlike system of neurons that governs the functioning of the gut
sensory and motor neurons
under the control of the CNS
plays key role in maintaining fluid & nutrient balances in the body

135
Q

spinal cord’s job

A

funnel sensory info from body to brain
convey brain’s motor commands out to body
contains circuits that perform local processing & control simple units of behavior

136
Q

cerebral hemispheres

A

right and left halves of the forebrain

137
Q

cerebral cortex

A

outer covering of the cerebral hemispheres
consists largely of nerve cell bodies & their branches
causes lumpy convolutions of the cerebral hemispheres
made up of neurons + fibers

138
Q

gyrus

A

rigid or raised portion of a convoluted brain surface

folding greatly increases cortical surface area

139
Q

sulcus

A

grooves in the convoluted brain surface

seperates gyrus from each other

140
Q

major cortical regions

A 
frontal
parietal
temporal
occipital
named after bones of skull that overrides them
141
Q

frontal lobe

A

most anterior portion of cerebral cortex

higher level cognition and movement

142
Q

parietal lobe

A

large regions of cortex lying between frontal + occipital lobes of each cerebral hemisphere
sensory info from body & spatial recognition & attention
where info is incorporated from other lobes

143
Q

temporal lobe

A

large lateral cortical regions of each cerebral hemisphere
separated from frontal lobe by sylvian fissure
continuous with parietal lobes posteriorly
auditory info, sense of smell

144
Q

occipital lobe

A

large regions of cortex covering much of the posteriror part of each cerebral hemisphere
receive & process info from eyes
team leader of visual stimuli

145
Q

sylvian fissure

A

deep fissure that demarcates the temporal lobe

temporal lobe boundary from others

146
Q

central sulcus

A

fissure that divides the frontal lobe from the parietal lobe
groove in between

147
Q

cortical damage causes

A

memory problem
speech error
personality change
visual impairment

148
Q

postcentral gyrus

A

strip of parietal cortex
behind central sulcus
recieves somatosensory info from entire body
sense of touch

149
Q

precentral gyrus

A

strip of frontal cortex
in front of central sulcus
crucial for motor control
contains an orderly map of the muscles of the body

150
Q

corpus callosum

A

main band of axons that connects the two cerebral hemispheres
c shaped bundle of axons
enables communication between right and left cerebral hemispheres

151
Q

white matter

A

shiny layer underneath the cortex
consists largely of axons with white myelin sheaths
consists mostly of fiber tracts
transmits information

152
Q

gray matter

A

areas of the brain that’re dominated by cell bodies
have no myelin
nerve cell bodies and dendrites
process information

153
Q

forebrain

A

anterior division of brain
contains cerebral hemispheres & thalamus & hypothalamus
prosencephalon
split into telencephalon & diencephalon

154
Q

midbrain

A

middle division of brain

mesencephalon

155
Q

hindbrain

A

rear division of the brain

contains cerebellum & pons & medulla

156
Q

when have forebrain and hindbrain developed clear subdivisions

A

50 days after conception

157
Q

telencephalon

A

frontal subdivision of the forebrain
includes cerebral hemispheres when fully developed
cortex & basal ganglia & limbic system

158
Q

diencephalon

A

posterior part of forebrain

includes thalamus & hypothalamus

159
Q

metencephalon

A

subdivision of the hind brain

includes cerebellum & pons

160
Q

cerebellum

A

located in back of brain behind pons
involved in central regulation of ovement
involved in coordination and movement
has 3 layers

161
Q

pons

A

portion of metencephalon (hind brain)
part of brainstem
connects midbrain to medulla

162
Q

medulla

A

posterior part of hind brain
continuous with spinal cord
contains nuclei that control breathing and heart rate
marks transition from brain to spinal cord
aka myelencphalon

163
Q

brainstem

A

consists of midbrain, pons, medulla

164
Q

5 main sections hind brain & fore brain divide into

A

“phalon”
telencephalon- frontal of fore (cerebral hemi, lmbic system, cortex, basal ganglia)
dilencephalon- posterior of fore (thal & hypothalamus)
mesenephalon- midbrain
metencephalon- divison of hind (cerebellum, pons)
myelencephalon- medulla

165
Q

nucleus

A

collection of neurons within CNS
within and between major brain regions
same from individual to individual and species to species

166
Q

tracts

A

bundle of axons found within CNS

same from individual to individual and species to species

167
Q

how are brains symmetrical

A

bilaterally symmetrical

mirror images left and right

168
Q

arrangement of neurons in cerebral cortex

A

6 distinct layers
4 mm thick
each is distinct cause it has a particular pattern of dendrites/axons or band of similar neurons

169
Q

allocortex

A

brain tissue with 3 layers on unlayerd organization

170
Q

pyramidial cell

A

type of large nerve cell with roughly pyramid shaped body

most prominant type of neuron in cerebral cortex

171
Q

aptical dendrite

A

dendrite that extends from a pyramidal cell –> outermost surface of the cortex

172
Q

basal dendrites

A

one of several dendrites on a pyramidal cell

extend horizontally from the cell body

173
Q

cortical columns

A

one of vertical columns that constitute the basic organization of the neocortex
extend through cortex from white matter –> surface
syaptic interconnections within each are vertical

174
Q

basal ganglia

A

group of forebrain nuclei found deep within cerebral hemispheres
includes caudate nucleus & globus pallidus & putamen
important in motor control

175
Q

caudate nucleus

A

one of the basal ganglia

has long extention or tail

176
Q

substantia nigra

A

brainstem structure in humans
innervates basal ganglia
in midbrain
important motor center

177
Q

limbic system

A

group of brain nuclei that innervate each other to form a network
hippocampis, amygdala, fornix
limbic structures near base of brain help govern highly motivated behaviors + regulate hormonal systems of body

178
Q

amygdala

A

group of nuclei in medial, anterior part of temporal lobe
part of limbic system
emotional regulation, odor perception

179
Q

hippocampus

A

medial temporal lobe structure
important for learning + memory
part of limbic system

180
Q

fornix

A

fiber tract
extends from hippocampus to mammiliary body
contributes to learning and memory
part of the limbic system

181
Q

cingulate gyrus

A

cortical portion of limbic system
found in frontal + parietal midline
implicated in direction of attention
strip of the cortex in each hemisphere

182
Q

olfactory bulb

A

anterior projection of the brain

provides receptors for smell through small openings in the skull

183
Q

thalamus

A

cluster of nuclei that directs all incoming sensory info to appropriate regions of cortex

184
Q

hypothalamus

A

part of the diencephalon (fore post)
lies under thalamus
packed with discrete nuclei
hinger, thirst, temperatur regulation, sex
brain’s main interface with normla body systems
controls pituary gland

185
Q

superior colliculi

A

visual
paired gray matter structures of the dorsal midbrain
recieve visual info & are involved in direction of visual gaze + attention to intended stimuli

186
Q

inferior colliculi

A

sounds
paired gray matter structures of dorsal midbrain
recieve auditory info

187
Q

tectum

A

dorsal portion of midbrain

includes inferior + superior colliculi

188
Q

2 important motor centers in the midbrain

A

red nucleus

substantia nigra

189
Q

red nucleus

A

brainstem structure
related to motor control
important motor center in midbrain
communicates with motoneurons in spinal cord

190
Q

reticular formation

A

extensive region of brainstem

involved in arousal/ walking stretches from midbrain –> medulla

191
Q

surface of cerebellum

A

very convuluted to give it more surface area

arrangement of cells inside consists of 3 layers

192
Q

purkinje cells

A

type of large nerve cell in cerebellar cortex

makes up middle layer of cells inside cerebellum

193
Q

granule cell

A

“grain”
type of small nerve cell
lies below purkinje cell layer of cerebellum

194
Q

parallel fiber

A

one of the axons of granulle cells that form outermost layer of cerebral cortex

195
Q

info from ear first enters brain

A

in the pons

196
Q

meninges

A

3 protective sheets of tissue that surround the brain & spinal cord
dura matter, pia matter, arachnoid

197
Q

dura matter

A

outermost of 3 meninges that surround the brain & spinal cord
tough outer sheet

198
Q

pia matter

A

innermost of 3 meninges that surround the brain & spinal cord
delicate and adheres tightly to surface of brain

199
Q

arachnoid

A

thin covering of the brain that lies between the dura and pia matter
one of the 3 meninges that surround the brain & spinal cord
webby substance
suspends brain in cerebrospinal fluid

200
Q

cerebrospinal fluid

A

fluid that fills the cerebral ventricals

arachnoid suspends brain in this fluid

201
Q

meningitis

A

small inflammation of the meninges caused by viral of bacterial infection
-headache, fever, stiff neck

202
Q

ventricular system

A

system of fluid filled cavities inside of the brain

filled w cerebrospinal fluid

203
Q

functions of cerebrospinal fluid in ventricular system

A

acts mechanically as shock absorber for brain

provides medium for th exchange of materials between blood vesssels and brain tissue

204
Q

lateral ventricle

A

lateral portion of ventricular system within each hemisphere of the brain
extends into all 4 lobes of each hemisphere

205
Q

choroid plexus

A

vascular portion of the lining of the ventricles

secretes cerebrospinal fluid by filtering blood

206
Q

third ventricle

A

midline ventricle that conducts cerebrospinal fluid from lateral ventricle –> fourth ventricle

207
Q

fourth ventricle

A

passageway within the pons
recieves cerebrospinal fluid from third ventricle & releases it to surround brain + spinal cord
fluid absorbed back into circulatory system later through large veins beneath top of skull

208
Q

carteroid arteries

A

major arteries that ascend the left & right sides of neck to the brain
supplies blood to anterior and middle cerebral arteries

209
Q

middle cerebral arteries

A

2 large arteries
provide blood to most of the lateral surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres
arises from carotids

210
Q

anterior cerebral arteries

A

2 large arteries
provide blood to anterior poles & medial surfaces of the cerebral hemispheres
arises from carotids

211
Q

posterior cerebral arteries

A

2 large arteries
provide blood to posterior aspects of the cerebral hemispheres, cerebellum, brainstem
arises from basilar artery
provides blood supply for other 1/3 of cortex

212
Q

basilar artery

A

artery formed by the fusion of the vertebral arteries
supples blood to the brainstem & posterior cerebral arteries
has brainches supplying blood to hindbrain

213
Q

circle of willis

A

structure at base of brain

formed by joining of carotid + basilar arteries

214
Q

stroke

A

damage to region of brain tissue that results from blockage or rupture to vessels that supply blood to that region

215
Q

blood-brain barrier

A

mechanims that make movement of substances from blood vessels to brain more difficult
affords brain greater protection from exposure to some substances found in blood

216
Q

angiography

A

brain imaging technique
specialized x-ray image of head is taken after cerebral blood vessels have been filled w radiopaque die
Helps find strokes
aids in diagnosis of vascular disease

217
Q

computerized axial tomography (CT)

A

noninvasive technique for examining brain structure in humans
uses computer analysis of x-ray absorption at several positions around head
Generates anatomical map of brain based on tissue density
Find tumor that’s forming

218
Q

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

A 
noninvasive technique 
uses magnetic energy to generate images 
structural details in living brain
higher resolution images than ct 
Measure tissue density (how much water is present) 
no radioactive, no damaging x-ray
219
Q

position emission tomatography (PET)

A

technique for examining brain function
injections of radioactive substances used by brain into bloodstream & their destination is mapped
images of brain activity, not structure
which brain structures contribute to certain functions

220
Q

functional MRI (fMRI)

A

magnetic resonance imaging that detects change in blood flow
identifies regions of brain that’re particularly active during given task
(extra active places get extra rush of blood)
detects small changes in brain metabolism
generate computer images that reflect activity of diff parts of brain
great pic, slow

221
Q

diffusion tensor imaging (DTI)

A

modified form of MRI imaging
diffusion of water in confined space used to produce images of axonal fiber tracts
noninvasive
map axonal connections between diff regions of living human brain
determine orientation of fiber tracts
(lion image)

222
Q

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

A

stimulation of cortical neurons through application of strong magnetic fields
stimulates cortex of alert, normal subjects
interfere w discrete areas of cortex through electromagnetic induction

repetitive TMS; produces mesurable changes in behavior

223
Q

magnetoencelphalography (MEG)

A

passive + noninvasve
brain imaging technique
measures tiny magnetic fields produced by active neurons
identifies regions of brain particularly active during given task
responds quickly to moment to moment changes in brain activity
study rapidly shifting patterns of brian activity in cortical circuts
fast, low detail image

224
Q

transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)

A

sends current directly into brain

hooking 9 volt battery to brain

225
Q

EEG

A

measure of current itself

fast, low detail images

226
Q

dydadic functional MRI

A

fMRI technique

brains of 2 interacting individuals are simultaneously imaged

227
Q

neurophysiology

A

study of life processes of neurons that use electrical + chemical signals

228
Q

where are living cells more negative

A

on the inside

229
Q

ion

A

atom or molecule that’s acquired an electrical charge by gaining/losing electrons
neuron contains them

230
Q

anion

A

negatively charged ion
what most ions are
ex: protein or chloride ion

231
Q

ca+ion

A

positively charged ion

ex: potassium or soduim ion

232
Q

intracellular fluid

A

watery solution found within cells
what ions are dissolved in
aka cytoplasm

233
Q

extracellular fluid

A

fluid in spaces between cells and in vascular system

234
Q

cell membrane

A

lipid bilayer that ensheaths a cell

seperates intracellular from extracellular fluid

235
Q

resting membrane potental

A

difference in electrical potential across the membrane of a never cell during inactive period
provides baseline level of polarization found in all cells

236
Q

lipid bilayer

A

structure of cell membrane

consists of 2 layers of lipid(fatty) molecules that contain specialized proteins/ receptors

237
Q

large (vs small) neurons

A

have more complex inputs & outputs
cover greater distances
convey information more rapidly

238
Q

ion channel

A

pore in cell membrane
permits passage of certain ions trough membrane when the channels are open
proteins that span the membrane

239
Q

gated ion channel

A

open and close in response to voltage changes, chemicals, or mechanical action

240
Q

selective permeability

A

property of a membrane that allows some, not other substanes to pass through

241
Q

2 forces that drive ion movement (esp K+ ions)

A

diffusion

electrostatic pressure

242
Q

diffusion

A

spontaneous spread of molecules until a uniform concentration is achieved
molecules diffuse from regions of high –> low concentration
crowded people in a room move to a more empty room

243
Q

concentration gradient

A

variation of concentration of substance within a region

high to low

244
Q

electrostatic pressure

A

natural tendency for charged ions/molecules to move toward areas of opposite charge
cations –> negatively charged interior of cell
anions –> extracellular fluid
BASED ON CHARGE

245
Q

sodium potassium pump

A

3 Na+ out for every 2 K+ ions in
energetically expensive mechanism
pushes sodium ions out of cell & potassium ions in
maintains resting potential

246
Q

equilibrium

A

same # in, same # out
point which movement of ions across cell membrane is balanced
electrostatic pressure pulling ions is offset by diffusion force pushing them in opp direction
peak of action potential

247
Q

K+ ion movement

A

K+ ions wanna come in (electrostatic pressure)

then diffusion drives them out because too many K+ inside

248
Q

Nernst equation

A

equation predicting voltage needed to just counterbalance the diffusion force pushing ions across membrane
takes into account diffusion + electrostatic pressure

249
Q

action potential

A

“rapid electrical signal that travels along axon of neuron”
electrical message of a neuron
that travels along the axon to the presynaptic terminals
brief but large change in neural polarization
info neuron sends to postsynaptic targets is encoded in patterns of action potentials
rapid reversal of membrane potential that momentarily makes inside of membrane positive
actively regenerated down the axon

250
Q

hyperpolarization

A

an increase in membrane potential
interior of the neuron becomes even more negative (relative to the outside)
further from 0
more negative inside

251
Q

depolarization

A

reduction in membrane potential
interior of neuron becomes less negative & more like the outside
closer to 0
less negative inside

252
Q

graded response

A

neuron’s change in potential

since the greater the stimulus the greater the response

253
Q

what happens to potentials produced by stimulation of membrane

A

diminish as they spread away from point of stimulation

254
Q

local potential

A

electrical potential
initialed by stimulation at a specific site which is a graded response that spreads passively across cell membrane
decreases in strength with time and distance

255
Q

threshold

A

stimulus intensity that is just enough to trigger an action potential

256
Q

all or none property

A

if don’t reach threshold, doesn’t occur
fact that amplitude of action potential is independant of the magnitude of the stimulus
either fires at full amplitude or doesn’t fire at all

257
Q

what causes action potentials to increase in frequency

A

increased stimulus strength

258
Q

larger depolarizations…

A

produce more action potentials (not larger ones )

259
Q

afterpotentials/overshoot

A

positive or negative change in membrane potential that may follow an action potential
related to movement of ions in and out of cell

260
Q

how is action potential created

A

moveent of sodium ions into cell through channels in the membrane

261
Q

voltae gated Na+ channel

A

Na+ selective chnnel
opens or closes in response to changes in the voltage of the local membrane potential
mediates the action potential
channel’s shape changes when cell membrane becomes depolarized to threshold levels

262
Q

refractory

A

unresponsive/ inactivated/ unresponsive

263
Q

2 phases of r efractoriness

A

1 absolute refractory phase

2 relative refractory phase

264
Q

absolute refractory phase

A

brief period of complete insensitivity to stimuli
period immediately following the production of an action potential
because voltage gated Na+ channels are either still open or unresponsive

265
Q

relative refractory phase

A

period of reduced sensitivity
during which only strong stimulation produces an action potential
follows the absolute refractory phase
because K+ ions are still flowing out so cell is temporarily hyperpolarized after firing action potential
overshoot is a part of this period

266
Q

what does the overall length of the refractory phase do

A

what determines neuron’s maximal rate of firing

267
Q

axon hillock

A

cone shaped area
from which axon originates out of the cell body
integration zone of neuron
where action potential starts

268
Q

in what direction does axon conduct action potentials

A

in one direction

from axon hillock –> axon terminals

269
Q

conduction velocity

A

speed which an action potential is propagated along length of an axon

270
Q

saltatory conduction

A

form of conduction characteristic of myelinated axons
action potential jumps from one node of ranvier to the next
speeds up rate of conduction

271
Q

importance of refractory period

A

if ion channels could open again, action potential wwouldn’t go in one direction along the axon
keeps action potential in same direction and not back up towards cell

272
Q

electrical synapse/gap junction

A

region between neurons
where postsynaptic & presynaptic membranes are so close that action potenntial can jump to postsynaptic membrane WITHOUT BEING TRANSLATED INTO CHEMICAL MESSAGE
faster than synapses

273
Q

postsynaptic potential

A

local potential initiated by stimulation at a synapse
bref changes occuring after neurotransmitters are released into synapses
determine whether neuron will reach threshold + generate action potential of its own

274
Q

excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

A

depolarizing potential in the postsynaptic neuron that’s caused by excitatory connections
increases probablility that the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential
pushes postsynaptic cell closer to threshold for an action potential

275
Q

inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

A

hyperpolarizing potential in the postsynaptic neuron that’s caused by inhibitory connections
decreases probability that the postsynaptic neuron will fire an action potential
results from opening ion channels that permit chloride ions to enter cell

276
Q

temporal summation

A

summation of postsynaptic potentials that reach axon hillock at different times
closer in time the potntials occur, the more complete the summation
“time difference”

277
Q

can induce postsynaptic potentials

A

vast number of synaptic inputs arrayed across dendrites + cell body

278
Q

firing of cell (action potential) is influenced by

A

how close you are to threshold
timing
strength/intensity of postsynaptic potential
where it happens in comparison to where info is integrated
timing in relation to when specific cell is fired

279
Q

exocytosis

A

process by which
synaptic vesicle fuses with presynaptic terminal membrane to
release neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft
action potential causes exocytosis of several hundred vesicles at a time

280
Q

ligand

A

substance that binds to receptor molecules
can either activate or block receptor protein
endogenous & exogenous ligands

Intro to Neuroscience (Chap 1-5) (1 decks)

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