Chapter 1 Flashcards
(172 cards)
1
Q
what is the study of suffering or disease?
A
pathology
2
Q
what three things do the study of the changes of pathology occur to?
A
cellular level, tissue changes, organs
3
Q
what is the basis for rational care?
A
prognosis (what is to come next)
4
Q
define etiology.
A
origin of disease; the “why”
5
Q
true or false. etiology deals with the nature and nurture theory.
A
true
6
Q
define the nature/nurture theory as it pertains to etiology.
A
genetic risks/environmental factors (cig smoke)
ionized radiation, increased risk for cancer
7
Q
what is the origin of disease?
A
etiology
8
Q
define pathogenesis.
A
steps of development of disease; the “how”
9
Q
what are etiological factor affects pathogenesis usually for the worst?
A
cellular change
10
Q
what term is defined as the steps of development of disease; the “how”?
A
pathogenesis
11
Q
what are three types of altered appearance (morphology)?
A
gross, microscopic, biochemical
12
Q
what is an example of a biochemical altered appearance?
A
number of cells in blood substance in urine
13
Q
how does health originate from cellular homeostasis?
A
preserve viability of cells; must also adapt to stress
14
Q
what are the four types of adaptation that affect cellular homeostasis?
A
- hypertrophy 2. hyperplasia 3. atrophy 4. metaplasia
15
Q
if a cell’s ability to adapt is exceeded, what will it lead to?
A
injury
16
Q
what are two types of cellular homeostatic injury?
A
reversible and irreversible
17
Q
define a reversible injury.
A
short lived or mold injury
18
Q
what is an example of an irreversible injury?
A
high blood pressure; cells become hypertrophied to work harder –> heart attack
19
Q
true or false. you will develop a pathology when cellular injury leads to reversible cellular injury.
A
false. (irreversible cellular injury)
20
Q
what are the two types of cellular injury?
A
necrosis and apoptosis
21
Q
what will happen to the body before cell death?
A
loss of function
22
Q
define phenotype.
A
observable characteristics or traits
23
Q
if you change a cell’s phenotype, it will affect what two things?
A
appearance and function
24
Q
what is the term for observable characteristic or traits?
A
phenotype
25
define hypertrophy.
an increase in cell size, but no new cell
26
hypertrophy occurs in what type of cells?
cells that cannot replicate
27
hypertrophy is a result of what two factors?
1. overloading 2. increase in growth factors (e.g. hormones)
28
what is an example of physiologic hypertrophy?
lifting weights, pregnant uterus
29
what is an example of pathologic hypertrophy?
congestive heart failure
30
what is the term for an increase in cell size?
hypertrophy
31
Rhinophyma is a form of what pathology?
Rosacea
32
Rhinophyma is the hypertrophy of what glands?
sebaceous
33
true or false. Rhinophyma is not idiopathic.
false. it is idiopathic
34
what are some types of stressors of hypertrophy?
hypertension and valvular stenosis
35
what are some types of injury of hypertrophy?
swelling and steatosis
36
true or false. 2/3 of heart attacks are lethal.
false. 1/3
37
what is an example when a normal monocyte undergoes adaptation in response to increased load?
ventricular hypertrophy
38
what is an example when a reversibly injured monocyte undergoes cell death?
myocardial infarction
39
define hyperplasia.
an increase in number of cells
40
in what type of cells does hyperplasia occur?
cells that must be able to divide
41
hyperplasia is a result of what three factors?
compensatory factors. gene activation, HPV infection (wart)
42
what is an example of physiologic hyperplasia?
female breast tissue during breast feeding
43
what is an example of pathological hyperplasia?
HPV--> wart or can induce cancer
44
what is the difference between hyperplasia and cancer?
hyperplasia is controlled while cancer is uncontrolled
45
true or false. hyperplasia will accompany hypertrophy.
true. (may accompany)
46
what is the term to describe and increase in the number of cells?
hyperplasia
47
define atrophy.
reduced size in cells
48
what are two factors that define atrophy?
1. reduced protein synthesis 2. increased rate of protein breakdown
49
true or false. since the cells are reduced in atrophy, this means that are dead as well.
false
50
atrophy is the result of what 5 factors?
1. denervation (compression) 2. disease 3. ischemia (decreased blood supply) 4. endocrine disruption 5. aging
51
what is the term to describe a reduced size of cells?
atrophy
52
define senile atrophy.
subcutaneous fat and skin tissue atrophy
53
what accelerates senile atrophy?
UV light
54
what are some possible causes of cerebral atrophy?
atherosclerosis, malnutrition, alzheimer disease, huntington disease
55
cerebral atrophy is a risk for pathology?
intracranial hemorrhage
56
denervation atrophy of the thenar musculature is a symptom of what pathology?
carpal tunnel
57
define metaplasia.
reversible replacement of 1 mature cell type by another
58
metaplasia is the response to what type of prolonged stressor?
chronic stress (inflammation) (e.g. smoking, GERD)
59
what are the consequences of metaplasia?
cancerous transformation; altered structure (decrease in function)
60
what type of cellular adaptation can transform into cancer?
metaplasia
61
true or false. cellular injury can lead to cell death.
true
62
cellular injury occurs once stressors do what three things?
1. exceed a cell's ability to adapt 2. directly induce abnormalities 3. intrinsic abnormalities (DNA damage)
63
what are some various causes of cell injury/death?
mutations, trauma- physical, thermal, ionizing radiation, ischemia, poisons/toxins, autoimmune infection
64
true or false. cellular injury can only be reversible.
false. irreversible and reversible
65
in reversible injury, the cell function will increase or decrease with duration of the injury?
decrease
66
what type of cellular injury is from short lived or mild stress?
reversible
67
what are some features of reversible cellular injury?
steatosis (fatty change), cellular swelling
68
in reversible injuries, is there damage to the membrane?
no
69
in reversible injuries, is there damage to the nucleus?
no
70
what type of cellular injury is from long term or severe stress?
irreversible
71
in irreversible injury, is there damage to the membranes?
yes
72
what three membranes will be affected in irreversible injury?
lipid bilayer, mitochondria, lysosomal
73
what are the two types of irreversible injury?
necrosis and apoptosis
74
true or false. necrosis is always pathological.
true
75
what are some causes of necrosis?
toxins, ischemia, trauma
76
is necrosis inflammatory?
yes
77
true or false. apoptosis will always be physiological.
false. pathological or physiological
78
what are some causes of apoptosis?
decreased in growth factors, DNA damage, viral infection
79
is apoptosis inflammatory?
no
80
is the cell membrane intact during necrosis? apoptosis?
no; yes
81
what is karyolysis necrosis?
nuclear fading
82
what is pyknosis necrosis?
nuclear shrinkage
83
what is karyorrhexis necrosis?
nuclear fragmentation
84
karyolysis, karyorrhexis, pyknosis will lead to nuclear dissolution which will eventually lead to _______?
anuclear necrotic cell
85
what are the 5 morphologic patters of necrosis?
1. coagulative 2. liquefactive 3. caseous 4. fat necrosis 5. fibrinoid
86
what is another name for coagulative necrosis?
ischemic necrosis
87
in coagulative necrosis, what process will eventually lead to tissue death?
vascular occlusion (ischemia)
88
name the location of coagulative/ischemic necrosis. (give example)
solid organ (infarction); kidneys and heart
89
what are two features of coagulative necrosis?
1. feel solid to the touch for weeks/days 2. denatures proteolytic enzymes
90
what is an example of coagulative necrosis?
peripheral vascular disease (PVD) from diabetes
91
what is a type of coagulative necrosis?
gangrenous necrosis
92
what is the location gangrenous necrosis?
extremities
93
what are some causes of gangrenous necrosis?
PVD (diabetes), atherosclerosis (plaques), frost bite
94
what are the 3 types of gangrenous necrosis?
dry, wet, gas
95
what type of gangrenous necrosis is due to deep infection?
gas gangrene
96
what is the definition of wet gangrene?
infection superimposed on a site of gangrene
97
define liquefactive necrosis.
dead cells are completely digested by WBCs into a liquid viscous mass
98
what are 2 causes of liquefactive necrosis?
1. stroke (CNS dies) 2. infection (bacterial and fungal)
99
between bacterial and fungal infections, what is the most common cause of liquefactive necrosis?
bacterial
100
define caseous necrosis.
dead tissue with a "cheese-like" appearance
101
caseous necrosis is typical of pathology?
tuberculosis
102
what is a granuloma?
walled off collection of macrophages
103
what is another name for fat necrosis?
ezymatic necrosis
104
what is fat necrosis due to?
lipase ezymes
105
what are the location for fat necrosis?
pancreas and breast tissue (peritoneum)
106
what is a cause of fat necrosis?
pancreatitis
107
what is pancreatitis due to?
alcoholism and abdominal trauma
108
what type of appearance will fat necrosis show?
chalky white
109
what type of necrosis requires a microscope/histological evaluation?
fibrinoid necrosis
110
what type of reactions will result in fibrinoid necrosis?
autoimmune diseases
111
what pathology will result in fibrinoid necrosis?
vasculitis
112
what is vasculitis caused by?
autoimmune conditions that are destroying blood vessel walls e.g. Lupus
113
what term describes programmed cell death?
apoptosis
114
what are examples of physiologic apoptosis?
embryogenesis, endometrium, immune cells
115
what are examples of pathologic apoptosis?
genetic damage, virally infected cells (HIV)
116
apoptosis is autophagy as ______ is to _____.
apoptotic bodies; autophagic vacules
117
what needs to be activated for apoptosis mechanisms?
caspases
118
what are the 2 types of apoptosis mechanisms?
mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway and death receptor (extrinsic) pathway
119
what apoptotic mechanism is the most common?
mitochondrial (intrinsic) pathway
120
what caspase will be found in mitochondrial pathway? death receptor pathway?
9;8
121
what apoptotic mechanism deals with autoimmunity?
death receptor pathway
122
define autophagy.
self-eating; sequesters internal organelles
123
what is a survival mechanism during nutrient deprivation?
autophagy
124
prolonged autophagy will lead to _____?
apoptosis
125
is apoptosis or autophagy associated with Alzheimer's?
autophagy
126
during mitochondrial dysfunction, mitochondrial damage will lead to an increase in_____ and decrease in_____.
oxidation stress, ATP
127
during calcium homeostasis, activatin of multiple cellular enzymes will induce _____?
apoptosis
128
membrane abnormalities will lead to what cell injury?
necrosis
129
DNA damages or misfolded proteins will activate what cell injury?
apoptosis
130
what are the three types of cellular injury?
ischemia and hypoxia; ischemia reperfusion, chemical
131
ischemia is the decrease in ______ and hypoxia is the decrease in ______.
blood flow; oxygen
132
what will cause ischemia/hypoxia?
acute cell injury
133
true or false. ischemia and hypoxia will not alter metabolism.
false. it will alter
134
what is the outcome of aerobic cellular injury? anaerobic cellular injury?
decrease in oxygen and ATP; shut down glycolysis because of reduced substrates
135
define ischemia-reperfusion injury.
increase in WBC will released ROS and will cause injury to cells
136
what are two types of ischemia-reperfusion injury?
myocardial infarction and cerebral infart
137
what are the two types of chemical injury?
direct and indirect injury
138
define a direct chemical injury.
toxic exposure binds directly to cell and is harmful; usually cells that absorb or store; DO NOT require conversion
139
define indirect chemical injury.
require conversion; usually in liver
140
what are the four types of intracellular accumulations?
abnormal metabolism, defective protein folding or transport, defective or absent enzymes, ingestion of indigestible material
141
what is the prime example of abnormal metabolism of intracellular accumulation?
fatty liver disease
142
what type of intracellular accumulation is a result of genetic mutation?
defective protein folding or transport
143
what type of intracellular accumulation is an inherited mutation?
defective or absent enzyme
144
what are some examples of indigestible material?
coal, silica, asbestos (mesothelioma)
145
what hepatomegaly a result of?
steatosis (fatty liver)
146
what are 4 location of steatosis?
cardiac muscles, skeletal muscles, liver, kidneys
147
nonalcoholic fatty liver disease could be due to what three things?
diabetes, obesity, increase in cholesterol
148
what are the microscopic findings of steatosis?
fat blebs
149
what percentage of heavy drinkers will develop steatosis?
90-100%
150
what percentage of heavy drinkers will develop hepatitis?
10-35%
151
what percentage of heavy drinkers will develop cirrhosis?
8-20%
152
true or false. 1/5 of heavy drinkers will develop cirrhosis.
true
153
what are the two possible symptoms of alcoholic liver disease?
ascites and caput medusae
154
what pathology is associated with fluid filled/excess accumulation in peritoneal lining in the abdominal region?
ascites (alcoholic liver disease)
155
define caput medusae.
long term damage to liver; engorged superficial epigastric veins; late stage of liver damage
156
freckles are the intracellular accumulation of _____.
melanin; UVB exposure
157
what is the term associated with the bleeding condition of intracellular accumulation?
hemosidenin
158
define lipofuscin intracellular accumulation.
wear and tear of pigments in older cells
159
what are the two types of pathologic calcification?
dystrophic and metastatic
160
where does dystrophic calcification occur?
damaged tissue
161
what are three types of dystrophic calcification?
atherosclerosis, aortic stenosis, myositis ossificans
162
where does metastatic calcification occur?
in normal tissues
163
what is metastatic calcification due to?
hypercalcemia in blood
164
where are common sites for metastatic calcification?
vessel walls, kidneys, lungs, GI tract
165
what are some causes of metastatic hypercalcemia?
bone cancer, leukemia, hypervitaminosis, renal failure
166
what are three factors that affect cellular aging?
DNA damage, replicative senescence, defective protein homeostasis
167
true or false. DNA damage is due to oxidative stress during cellular aging.
true
168
define replicative senescence as it pertains to cellular aging.
decreased cells ability to divide; shortened telomeres
169
during cellular aging, what factor is a signal for apoptosis?
defective protein homeostasis
170
during cellular aging, what is the enzyme that builds the ends of chromosomes?
telomerase
171
what is Progeroid Syndromes?
increased rate of cellular aging
172
true or false. telomere shortening will prevent the re-enter into cell cycle.
true
