Chapter 1 and 2 Flashcards
(153 cards)
1
Q
What is a sanguine person like?
A
An individual that is very socially-active, energetic and care-free. They are emotionally stable and extraverted.
1
Q
Is negative reinforcement the same as punishment?
A
No, punishments actually reduce the likelyhood of a behaviour being replicated.
1
Q
What do cultural psychologist mainly focus on?
A
The differences between collectivist and individualistic cultures.
1
Q
What is positive psychotherapy?
A
A new therapy that focuses on how to make indivivduals happier rather than fixing or identifying problems.
2
Q
What is the level of the group?
A
It refers to the perspective hat humans are shaped by their ever-changing social environment.
2
Q
What is a debrief?
A
Supplying full information about the purpose of the research to participants afterwards.
3
Q
What is the standard deviation?
A
The statistic that tells us how much deviation there is from the mean.
4
Q
Who pioneered split brain research?
A
Roger Sperry
4
Q
What is operationalize?
A
To develop a functional definition of the tested variable.
4
Q
What is the experimental group?
A
The group in the experiment that is subjected to the independent variable.
5
Q
What does empirical mean?
A
Experimental or testable in objective ways
6
Q
Who formed the school of structuralism?
A
Edward Titchener
6
Q
Who invented inductive reasoning?
A
Sir Francis Bacon
6
Q
What is the double-blind procedure?
A
A study in which neither the researchers or participants know who is in the control or experimental treatment.
7
Q
What was Charles Darwin’s major contribution to science?
A
He proposed the theory of evolution and how natural selection is responsible for the evolution of organisms.
7
Q
What is observational learning?
A
It is when a child or individual learns by modelling themselves after an influence.
7
Q
What are surveys? What are the pros and cons?
A
It is a research method in which people are asked to answer questionaires. It provides a great amount of data but the information may not be reliable due to participant bias.
8
Q
What is description?
A
To describe observed actions.
10
Q
What is the mean?
A
The average between the set of scores.
11
Q
What is effect size?
A
The statistic that determines the strength of the relationship between the two variables.
12
Q
What is the psychoanalytic theory?
A
The theory that believes that human behaviour and personality is influenced by unconscious forces that try to come into awareness.
12
Q
Who discovered that memories are not stored in specific parts of the brain but rather it is spread out across the brain?
A
Karl Lashley
12
Q
What is participant bias?
A
When people answer questions in socially acceptable manners rather than truthfully.
13
Q
Why is psychology so difficult to study?
A
It focuses on behaviour which is everchanging, complex and unique to different people.
13
What is Eugenics?
It is field of science that focuses on selective breeding of human beings.
13
What are experiments?
Controlled observations in which a variable is manipulated (independent) in order to see its effects on another variable. (dependent)
14
What is voluntarism?
The behaviours or actions that individuals perform willingly.
15
What is replcation?
Repeatedly testing the hypothesis to ensure that the results were not by chance.
16
What is Wernickes' area?
The part of the mind that is associated with the understanding of speech.
17
What is applied psychology?
The branch of psychology that seeks to apply the principles of psychology.
18
Who "invented" functionalism?
William James
18
What is a response?
The way that one reacts to stimuli.
18
What is the dependent variable?
The variable that is expected to change as a result of the manipulated variable.
20
What are behaviors?
How one interacts or responds to their environment or situation.
20
Who oversees ethics in psychology?
The research ethics board (REB)
22
What is the level of the brain?
It refers to the brain cell activities that occur during transmission and storage of information. It focuses on how the brain changes in response to situations or stimuli.
23
Who is Sigmund Freud?
A Viennese neurologist that developed the psychoanalytical theory.
23
What is evolutionary psychology?
The study of psychology that believes that the brain and body are products and evolution and that heredity plays a key role in the shaping of one's mental processes and behaviours.
23
What is a developmental psychologist?
A psychologist that focuses on children development and how people change over the course of their lives.
23
What is inductive reasoning?
It is the scientific approach in which controlled direct observations are used to genereate broad conclusions that could eventually become theories.
24
What is clinical/counselling psychology?
The branch of psychology that seeks to diagnose or fix abnormal or unhealthy psychological behaviour.
25
What is random selection?
The process by which participants or test subjects all have an equal chance of being chosen. (In order to represent all different types of people)
26
What is descrptive statistics?
Stats that describe or summarize data collected.
27
What was an alternative theory on how people learn and who developed it?
Some people believed that children learned more from social observation and modelling rather than conditioning. Albert Bandura made this.
28
What were the flaws of structuralism?
It lacked consistent experimental results and there no practical ways to apply findings.
28
What is cultural psychology?
The study of psychology that examines the cognitive differences in different cultures/populations.
28
What are the steps within the scientific method?
Make an observation, develop an hypothesis, test the hypothesis and build a theory.
30
What are mental processes?
How the human brain functions as humans react to stimuli or situations.
32
What were Aristotle's key contributions to the foundation of psychology?
He wrote about many important topics in psychology such as sensations, dreams, sleep, and learning however he was wrong in that he believed that the brain was of minor significance.
34
What were the pros of structuralism?
It focused on observable events and on studying simple thoughts is essential to understanding complex thoughts.
35
Who discovered that certain tissues in the brain were responsible for diferent cognitive processes?
Wilder Penfield
35
What is cognitive neuroscience?
The study of psychology that focuses not only on mental processes but also how they interact with biological functions.
36
What is self-actualization and who proposed this notion?
It is the motive to fulfill one's special potential as humans, it was proposed by Abraham Maslow.
37
How is psychology distinct from pseudopsychology?
It does not claim to have all of life's answers and it remains a purely empirical science.
39
What is the level of the individual?
It refers to how the contents of mental processes shape and influence human behaviours and personalities
40
What early fields of psychology still exist?
Functionalism, behaviourism and cognitive psychology.
41
What is a melancholic person like?
An individual that is depressed and reclusive. They are emotionally unstable and intraverted.
41
What is a phlegmatic person like?
An individual that is wise, practical and calm. They are emotionally stable and intraverted.
42
Who are sociobiologists?
People who believe that humans have an innate concept of how social behaviour is organized and that social behaviour is both biologically and culturally infleunced.
44
Who discovered the phenomenon of classical conditioning?
Ivan Pavlov
46
What are the two methods of research and what goal of psychology do they satisfy?
Descriptive Research (describe) and Experimental Research (explain)
47
What is introspection?
A method of studying psychology in which one describes and analzyes the structure of the brain and how mental processes expand simple thoughts into complex ones.
48
What is behavioural genetics?
A sub-field of psychology that focuses on how genes infleunce human behaviour.
50
What is gestalt psychology?
The field of psychology that suggests that humans have an inborn tendency to group stimulis or structures together.
51
What is pseudopsychology?
It is "pop" psychology that claims that psychological principles can provide answer to all of life's major problems and questions.
52
What is structuralism?
The belief that psychology should be focused mainly on discovering the structures and elements of the mind.
54
What is explanation?
To understand or explain why certain actions occur.
56
Which two Greek philosophers suggested that some human characteristics were universal or part of the human "essence?"
Plato and Socrates believed this.
57
Is a correlation coefficient of -0.7 weaker than one with +0.3?
No, the absolute value of the coefficient determines the strength of the relationship.
58
What is cultural universality?
Human behaviours or practices that are present among all humans.
59
What is the Hawthorne effect?
It is when people change or improve their behaviours when they know they are being observed or evaluated.
60
What is a sample?
The group of individuals that are studied in an experiment.
62
What is psychology?
The study of mental processes (how the brain works) and behaviours (what humans do).
63
What is reinforcing?
A way of learning in whcih consequences from certain behaviours either increase or decrease the likelyhood of re-performing the behaviour.
64
What is the only way to determine causality?
With experimental research.
65
What does the correlation coefficient not tell us?
It does tells us that there may be a relationship between variables but NOT which variable is the reason for the change in the other. (Which comes first, causality)
66
What are the two essential principles of science?
That the universe follows certain laws and such laws can be discovered and tested.
66
What is the probablity statistic?
The statistic that determines whether or not the data found can be replicated. (0.05, for example, means that there was only a 5% chance that the data would be found by luck or chance, and that 95% of the time this data could be replicated)
67
What are collectivist cultures?
Cultures that value the group over the individual, generally Eastern cultures.
69
What is cognitive psychology?
The study of mental processes and how information is processed and stored in the mind.
70
What is the correlation coefficient?
A statistic that shows the strength and kind of relationship between two variables.
72
What is anthropomorphism?
The human tendency to project human charateristics onto non-human objects in order to establish a sense of control over their world/environment.
74
What is prediction?
To predict likely behaviours or mental processes under certain circumstances.
75
What are the three levels of the mind?
The level of the brain, the level of the individual and the level of the group.
76
How has psychoanalytical theory contributed to psychology although it has generally been looked down upon?
It has led to the development of psychiatry and clincal psychology.
77
What are clinical psychologists?
Psychologist that provide psychotherapy and attempt to fix abnormal or unhealthy behaviours.
78
What are theories?
The ideas that explain how and why things work as they do. Such ideas, however, are never final and always capable of improvement.
79
Who claimed that he could create any phobia within anyone?
John Watson
79
Why was deductive reasoning not an effective scientific approach?
It had too many bias which can distort results.
79
What are the essential ethics guidelines in research?
Consent must be obtained, Participants must be protected, Confidentiality must be maintained, there must be voluntary participation and there must be a debrief after.
80
What is control?
To control, limit or increase certain behaviours.
81
What is positive reinforcement?
Learning or reinforcing a certain behaviour brings about a desired outcome or prize.
83
What are individualistic cultures?
Cultures that value the individual over the group, generally Western cultures.
84
How do you make sense of research results?
With statistics
85
What are the four humours and personalities associated with each one?
Black bile (Melancholic), Yellow bile (Choleric), Blood (Sanguine), Phlegm (Phlegmatic)
86
What is the central idea of behaviourism?
That consequenes from certain behaviours will dictate whether or not an individual performs that behaviour more or less.
88
Who pioneered the school of behaviourism?
John Watson
90
What are psychiatrists?
Doctors that focus in the field of psychology. They are able to prescribe medication to their patients.
91
What is a correlation?
A predictable relationship between two or more variables.
92
What is client-centered therapy and who developed it?
It is a therapy approach where the client is equal to the psychologist and gains were made by positive regards. It was made by Carl Rogers.
92
What is a naturalistic observation and what are the pros and cons?
It is when a researcher directly observes people during their every day lives. It is good in that it can reflect true human behaviour but there is both researcher and the Hawthorne effect.
93
What is positive psychology?
A new field of psychology that focuses on positive development and happiness of humans.
94
How did psychology come to be?
It originated from the field of philosophy but with the influence of biology, it became a science.
96
What is deductive reasoning?
Applying basic broad principles to specific situations to discover smaller truths.
98
What did Hippocrates suggest about human behaviour?
He believed that human personalities or behaviour were infleunce by the amount of humours or bodily fluids people contained.
99
What is humanistic psychology?
The theory of psychology that humans have unique and special. It stated that all humans have a special potential to achieve.
100
What are the possible values for the correlation coefficient and what do they mean?
From -1 to 1. A negative number states that they are inversely proportional while a positive number states that they are directly proportional. As the numbers approach +/- 1, they are more related.
101
What are counselling psychologists?
Psychologist that help people deal with less detrimental but more common problems such as relationships, family, child-rearing and career paths.
101
What is the controlled group?
The group in an experiment that is not subjected to the manipulated variable.
102
Was behaviourism perceived well?
No, many people criticized and questioned the merits of the field.
103
What is academic psychology?
The branch of psychology that focuses on research and instruction of psychological principles.
104
What is a variable?
Conditions, events, or situations that are studied in experiments.
105
What are the three branches of psychology?
Academic, clincal/counselling and applied. Note that they all focus on both mental processes and behaviours just at varied extents.
106
Did functionalism rely on one method of research like structuralism?
No, it used a variety of methods and also emphasized on the mental processes of animals, children and mentally ill individuals.
107
What is positive correlation?
A relationship with a positive correlation coefficient, it means that, on average, as one variable goes up the other also goes up. (Directly proportional)
109
Who fathered experimental psychology?
Wilhelm Wundt, who was a structuralist.
109
What is perfect correlation?
When two variables are exactly related, they have a correlation coefficient of +/- 1.
111
What does extraverted mean?
An individual that is outgoing.
112
Who came up with the idea of reinforcing behaviours?
B.F. Skinner
114
What does unconsicous mean?
It is the feelings, mental processes and sensations that one is not aware of. (Their own)
115
What absolute value of the correlation coefficient is deemed to yield a valid or predictable relationship?
0.3 or more is deemed to be exciting.
116
What is a choleric person like?
An individual that has a fiery temper and unpleasant. They are emotionally unstable and extraverted.
117
What is causality?
It is when a change in one variable directly impacts and changes another variable.
118
What is social neuroscience?
The study of psychology that focuses on how social functioning and brain activity are connected.
120
What is hypothetico-deductive reasoning?
It is the process in which scientist develop an hypothesis and sets out to test the hypothesis in order to see whether or not it is supported.
121
What is consciousness?
The behaviours and mental processes that one is aware of. (Their own)
122
What is information processing?
The way in whcih information is stored and how it operates internally.
123
What is behaviourism?
The thought that psychology should be focused on directly observable behaviours rather than mental processes.
124
What is analysis of variance?
Analyzing the mean and standard deviation for two or more groups.
126
Which early psychologist would agree with the principles of applied psychology?
William James, father of functionalism.
128
What is neuroscience?
Also known as psychobiology, it is the study of psychology that focuses on brain structure, brain activity and how they are related to behaviour and group dynamics.
129
Why is the psychoanalytical theory generally not supported?
There is very little evidence to suggest that it is true.
130
Who invented psychophysics?
Johannes Muller
132
What are the four goals of psychology?
To describe, explain, predict and control.
133
Which early psychologist would agree with the principles of academic psychology?
Wilhelm Wundt, father of experimental psychology
135
What is psychophysics?
The study of how humans process sensory information.
136
What is functionalism?
The belief that psychology should focus on the purposes of mental processes and why/how does the mind adapt to its environment.
137
Who fathered humanistic psychology?
Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
138
What are the shared values on psychology?
That psychology is theory-driven, empirical, multi-leveled and contextual.
139
What is a case study and what are the pros and cons?
It is when a researcher focuses on a single person's behaviours. It is good for the early stages of developing ideas but there is lots of researcher bias and there is no other results to compare to.
140
Who proved that nerve impulses take time rather than are instantaneous?
Herman Von Helmholtz
141
What is negative reinforcement?
Learning or reinforcing a certain behaviour helps organisms to avoid the certain un-desired outcomes.
142
What is the t-test?
It is analysis of the mean and standard deviation for only two groups in the experiment.
144
What kind of a science is psychology?
A natural science NOT a physical science like biology, chemistry or physics.
145
What is a science?
A field of study that seeks to understand the mechanics or truths about the world. This field uses the scientific method in order to achieve their goals.
146
What is cross-cultural psychology?
The study of psychology that examines universal cognitive/mental processes that are present in all humans.
147
What is inferential statistics?
What the researcher concludes/infers about the data.
148
What does intraverted mean?
An individual that is shy or quiet.
149
What is a stimuli?
Elements of the environment that trigger change or responses.
150
What is a hypothesis?
It is an educated guess about how/why things occur. It includes a variable and how it relates to the process occuring.
151
What is the independent variable?
The variable that is manipulated in order to determine whether or not it is responsible for a certain event.
152
What is negative correlation?
A relationship with a negative correlation coefficient. It means that, on average, as one variable goes up the other goes down. (Inversely proportional)
153
What is Broca's area?
The area of the mind that is associated with the formation of speech.
