Chapter 1 | The Science of Psychology

Question 1

What is psychological science?

Answer 1

It is the study, through research (empirical methods/empiricism), of the mind, brain, and behavior.

Question 2

How is the mind related to the brain and behavior?

Answer 2

The mind refers to mental activity, including the memories, thoughts, feelings, and perceptual experiences (five senses) we have while interacting with the world.

Question 3

How is the brain related to the mind and behavior?

Answer 3

Mental activity results from biochemical processes within the brain.

Question 4

How is behavior related to the mind and the brain?

Answer 4

Behavior describes the totality of observable human/animal actions, ranging from the subtle to the complex.

For example, some exclusively occur in humans, such as debating philosophy or performing surgery, but others occur in animals, such as eating and drinking.

Question 5

What is amiable skepticism/critical thinking?

Answer 5

It is the combination of openness and wariness. An amiable skeptic remains open to new ideas but is wary of new “scientific findings” when good evidence and reasoning doesn’t support them.

Critical thinking is systematically questioning and evaluating information using well-supported evidence. Critical thinkers need to judge whether or not a source is biased and must not be biased in their thinking.

Question 6

What are some ways that intuitive thinking can lead to errors?

Answer 6

Because of the motivation to use our intelligence, biases occur in order to make sense of events that involve or happen around us.

The brain also recognizes patterns and connections between things, though sometimes we do not see patterns that really exist.

We see what we expect to see and fail to notice things that do not fit with our expectations.

Question 7

What is psychological research?

Answer 7

Using psychological research to examine how people typically think, to understand when and why they are likely to draw erroneous conclusions.

Question 8

What kinds of common biases will we encounter?

Answer 8

Ignoring Evidence (confirmation bias)

Seeing causal connections that don’t actually exist

Accepting after-the-fact explanations (gives a false sense of certainty about making predictions)

Taking mental shortcuts

Question 9

How does the motivation for people to feel good about themselves affect how they interpret information?

Answer 9

People are resistant to recognizing their own weaknesses.

Question 10

What is the mind/body problem?

Answer 10

Are the mind and body separate and distinct, or is the mind simply the subjective experience of ongoing brain activity?

Question 11

What is the theory of dualism?

Answer 11

Promoted by Rene Descartes in the 1600s, it is the idea that the mind (or the soul) is comprised of a non-physical substance, while the body is constituted of the physical substance known as matter.

The mind/body problem is the separation of mental life and the body.

Psychologists reject dualism.

Question 12

What is the nature/nurture debate?

Answer 12

It describes the question of how much a person’s characteristics are formed by either “nature” or “nurture.” “Nature” means innate biological factors (namely genetics), while “nurture” can refer to upbringing or life experience more generally.

Nature/nurture is about the origin of mental life.

Psychologists accept that nature/nurture interacts with human development

Question 13

What is a core idea William James had that is still a central pillar of psychology today?

Answer 13

The mind is much more complex than its elements and therefore cannot be broken down.

Question 14

What is the stream of consciousness?

Answer 14

Coined by William James, this phrase describes a person’s continuous series of ever-changing thoughts.

The stream of consciousness is a metaphor describing how thoughts seem to flow through the conscious mind.

Question 15

What is functionalism?

Answer 15

It describes the mind as a functional tool that allows us to adapt to our environments. Human mental states and behaviors are survival mechanisms in order to preserve life and pass along genes to future generations.

Question 16

What is natural selection in relation to human features?

Answer 16

Features that are adaptive (for survival and reproduction) ar epassed along and those that are not adaptive (hinders survival and reproduction) are not passed along.

For example, language is passed down because communication is beneficial for human survival.

Question 17

What is diversity and inclusion and why is the field of psychology increasing it?

Answer 17

Diversity and inclusion is the value and practice of ensuring that psychological science represents the experiences of all humans.

This includes race, ethnic, culture, age, ability, gender, sexual orientation, socioeconomic status, immigration status, etc.

Question 18

What are the seven area of specialization in psychology?

Answer 18

Clinical

Cognitive

Cultural

Developmental

Health

Industrial/Organizational

Relationships

Social Personality

Question 19

Clinical Psychology

Answer 19

Seeks to understand, characterize, and treat mental illness.

Most common specializations.

Advanced degrees focus on research, clinical work/therapy, or a blend of the two.

Question 20

Cognitive Psychology

Answer 20

(Lab research) aims to understand the basic skills and processes that are the foundation of mental life and behavior.

Topics include attentions, memory, sensation, and perception.

Question 21

Cultural Psychology

Answer 21

Studies how cultural factors: geographical regions, national beliefs, and religious values can have effects on mental life and behavior.

Major contribution - highlight the profound ways that the samples used in psychological studies can influence the results and their implications.

It is closely linked with sociology and anthropology.

Question 22

Developmental Psychology

Answer 22

Studies how humans grow and develop from the prenatal period through infancy and early childhood, through adolescence and early adulthood, and into old age.

Focuses on how experiences across one’s life and the periods in life when they are important.

Question 23

Health Psychology

Answer 23

How psychological processes influence physical health and vice versa.

Factors - stress, loneliness, impulsivity - can influence health disorders and death.

Optimism, social supports and conscientiousness promote healthy behaviors.

Question 24

Industrial/organizational (I/O) Psychology

Answer 24

How psychological processes play out in the workplace.

Pragmatic specialization because it speaks to real-world problems - interpersonal conflicts at work + organizational change.

Question 25

Relationship Psychology

Answer 25

The quality of close relationships - romantic, platonic - predicts overall happiness and well-being.

Close relationship psychologists research intimate relationships - what makes them succeed or fail.

Question 26

Social-personality Psychology

Answer 26

The study of everyday thoughts, feelings, and behaviors & the factors that give rise to them.

Focuses on situational and dispositional causes of behaviors and its interactions.

Mental life and behavior cannot be fully understood without both pieces and their interaction.

Question 27

Brain Imaging

Answer 27

Functional magnetic imaging (fMRI) - the ability to study the working brain as it performs its psychological functions close to real time. It reveals changes in brain activation in response to different mental processes.

Used to understand how emotions change during adolescence, to how people process information regarding social groups, to how thinking patterns contribute to depression.

Question 28

Genetics and Epigenetics

Answer 28

The human genome/genetic code represents the foundational knowledge for studying how specific genes affect thoughts, actions, feelings and disorders.

Epigenetics is the study of the ways these environmental mechanisms can get “under the skin” to influence our mind and behavior.

Question 29

Immunology and Other Peripheral Systems

Answer 29

Reveals the deep and multilayered connections between our minds and other systems previously thought to be relatively independent.

Gut microbiome are the billions of microorganisms that live in our digestive tract and our mind and behavior. Can be altered by how our bodies respond to stress, immune response and direct attention. Has roles in health conditions - IBS, autism, and anxiety.

Question 30

How is psychology part of the “data science” revolution (three ways)?

Answer 30

Computational Modeling - helps researchers build a simplified version of the human mind inside a computer to explore and understand how we think, learn, and remember things. It’s like using a virtual laboratory to study the inner workings of our brains.

Replicability, open science, and data sharing -

Replicability means that when a psychologist or scientist conducts a study and makes certain findings, other researchers should be able to do a similar study and get similar results.

Open science is about being open and transparent in how research is done. It means sharing all the steps and details of a study with the scientific community and the public.

Data sharing means that after a study is done, the raw data (the numbers and information collected during the research) is made available to others who want to see it.

Question 31

What are data ethics?

Answer 31

Conducting research in a responsible and ethical manner, with a focus on respecting the rights and well-being of participants and maintaining the integrity of the research process. It involves transparency, informed consent, confidentiality, and a commitment to using data for the betterment of individuals and society while minimizing harm.

Question 32

What does culture have to do with psychology?

Answer 32

Culture shapes beliefs and values as well as influencing the way people think, feel, and behave.

Different cultures have distinct norms and values that shape individuals’ behavior and attitudes, dictating what is considered acceptable or appropriate within a given culture.

Culture is a primary agent of socialization, influencing how individuals learn and internalize societal expectations, beliefs, and behaviors.

Cultural identity refers to an individual’s sense of belonging to a particular cultural group. It plays a vital role in shaping one’s self-concept, self-esteem, and overall well-being. People often draw on their cultural identity to define who they are and how they relate to others.

Culture can affect cognitive processes, such as problem-solving strategies and decision-making. It can also influence perception, including how individuals perceive and interpret the world around them.

Cultural factors can significantly impact mental health and well-being. Cultural norms and stigma related to mental health issues can influence whether individuals seek help and how they cope with psychological challenges.

Cultural psychology is a subfield of psychology that focuses on how culture influences human behavior and mental processes. It seeks to understand the ways in which culture shapes psychological phenomena and vice versa.

Psychologists often conduct cross-cultural research to compare psychological phenomena across different cultures. This research helps identify cultural variations in psychological processes and highlights universal aspects of human psychology.

Psychologists and mental health professionals need to be culturally sensitive and competent when working with individuals from diverse backgrounds. Understanding cultural differences in communication styles, worldviews, and values is crucial for effective therapy and counseling.

Question 33

What is the biopsychosocial model?

Answer 33

An approach to psychological science that integrates biological factors, psychological processes, and social-contextual influences in shaping human mental life and behavior.

Question 34

What are the social levels of analysis?

Answer 34

How group contexts affect the ways in which people interact and influence each other.

Question 35

What are the cultural levels of analysis?

Answer 35

How people’s thoughts, feelings, and actions are similar or different across cultures.

Question 36

Levels of Analysis - Biological

Answer 36

Brain systems - neuroanatomy, animal research, brain imaging

Neurochemistry - neurotransmitters and hormones, animal studies, drug studies

Genetics - gene mechanisms, heritability, twin and adoption studies

Question 37

Levels of Analysis - Individual

Answer 37

Individual differences - personality, gender, developmental age groups, self-concept

Perception and cognition - thinking, decision making, language, memory, seeing, hearing

Behavior - observable actions, responses, physical movements

Question 38

Levels of Analysis - Social

Answer 38

Interpersonal behavior - groups, relationships, persuasion, influence, workplace

Social cognition - attitudes, stereotypes, perceptions

Question 39

Levels of Analysis - Cultural

Answer 39

Thoughts, actions, behaviors—in different societies and cultural groups - normals, beliefs, values, symbols, ethnicity

Question 40

What is distributed practice?

Answer 40

Learning material in bursts over a prolonged time frame, one of the best ways to learn. Everytime you pull up a memory and then remember it again, it gets stronger.

Question 41

What is retrieval-based learning?

Answer 41

Learning new information by repeatedly recalling it from long-term memory. It makes the content from memory stick in your mind better and longer.

Question 42

What is elaborative interrogation?

Answer 42

Learning by asking yourself why a fact is true or a process operates the way it does. Helps you link a fact into your understanding of the world.

Question 43

Why would understanding psychology help someone in an unrelated field of work?

Answer 43

Helps one understand themselves and help them to do their job.

For example, it would be useful for police detectives to study psychology because it could provide valuable insight into people’s motivations, mental state and drivers for certain behavior – including criminal acts.