Chapter 12

Question 1

Caused by disease-causing [microbes-microorganisms][(pathogens)- bacteria, viruses, and other microbes capable of causing illness. ], pose real threats to health and life, and some increasingly do not respond to standard antibiotic drug therapy. In mild cases, these can be lethal for a person who is ill or malnourished; has a compromised immune system; lives in an institution; has liver or stomach illnesses, or is pregnant, very old, or very young. If digestive tract disturbances are the major or only symptoms of your next bout of what some people dismiss as a “stomach bug,” chances are that what you really have is this form of illness.

Answer 1

Foodborne illnesses

Question 2

Microorganisms can cause foodborne illnesses either by what 2 things?

Answer 2

infection or intoxication

Question 3

Infectious agents, such as Salmonella bacteria or hepatitis viruses, ­infect the tissues of the human body and multiply there, causing illness. Some bacteria produce what two things that are poisonous chemicals that that they release as they multiply? These ­toxins are absorbed into the tissues and cause various kinds of harm, ranging from mild stomach pain and headache to paralysis and death.

Answer 3

enterotoxins and neurotoxins

Question 4

Poisons that act on mucous membranes, such as those of the digestive tract.

Answer 4

enterotoxins

Question 5

Poisons that act on the cells of the nervous system.

Answer 5

neurotoxins

Question 6

The most common cause of food intoxication is what? Are heart-resistant and so remain hazardous even after the food is cooked.

Answer 6

Staphylococcus aureus bacterium

Question 7

What is the most infamous cause of food intoxication? Its an organism that produces a toxin so deadly that an amount as tiny as a single grain of salt can kill several people within an hour. Grows in anaerobic conditions such as those found in improperly canned (especially home-canned) low-acid foods, home-fermented foods such as tofu, and homemade garlic or herb-infused oils stored at room temperature.

Answer 7

Clostrifium botulinum

Question 8

An often fatal foodborne illness caused by the botulinum toxin, a toxin produced by the Clostridium botulinum bacterium, which grows without oxygen in nonacidic canned foods. It quickly paralyzes muscles, making seeing, speaking, swallowing, and breathing difficult and demands immediate medical attention. Symptoms: Bloody stools, dehydration, diarrhea of more than 3 days duration, fever of longer than 24 hours duration, headache with muscle stiffness and fever, numbness, muscle weakness, tingling sensations in the skin, rapid heart rate, fainting, dizziness, severe intestinal cramps. Warning signs of this: difficulty breathing, difficulty swallowing, double vision, and weak muscles.

Answer 8

Botulism

Question 9

Learn:
The botulinum toxin and a few others are heat sensitive and can be destroyed by boiling, but this is not recommended because poisoning could occur if even a trace of the toxin remained intact.

Question 10

How Outbreaks Occur:
Commercially prepared food is usually safe, but an outbreak of illness from this source often makes the headlines because outbreaks can affect many people at once. Dairy farmers, for example, rely on pasteurization, a process that heats milk to kill most pathogens, thereby making the milk safe to consume. When a major dairy develops a flaw in its pasteurization system, hundreds of cases of illness can occur as a result.

Other types of farming require other safeguards. Growing food usually involves soil, and soil contains abundant bacterial colonies that can contaminate food. Animal waste deposited onto soil may introduce pathogens. Additionally, farm workers and other food handlers who are ill can easily pass pathogens to consumers through the routine handling of fruit, vegetables, or grains during and after harvest, a particular concern with regard to foods consumed raw, such as lettuce or cucumbers.

Question 11

Several strains of the E. coli bacterium produce a particularly dangerous protein known as this– a cause of severe illness. Any of a group of protein toxins produced as certain bacteria strains multiply; when absorbed it causes severe illness. The most notorious strain, E. coli O157:H7, caused a widespread outbreak in 2021 when consumers across five states ate contaminated produce, but outbreaks can also arise from other strains of this.

Answer 11

Shiga toxin

Question 12

STEC ecoli, focuses on two important issues:

Answer 12

1.) That raw foods routinely contain live pathogens
2.) Strict industry controls are essential to make foods safe

Question 13

Involves bloody diarrhea, severe intestinal cramps, and dehydration starting a few days after eating tainted meat, raw milk, or contaminated fresh raw produce.

Answer 13

STEC ecoli disease

Question 14

In worst case involving STEC, this causes a dangerous failure of the kidneys and organ systems that very young, very old, or otherwise vulnerable people may not survive. Antibiotics and self-prescribed antidiarrheal medicines can make the condition worse because they increase absorption and retention of the toxin. Severe cases require hospitalization. In other words, its a set of severe, sometimes fatal, symptoms, including abnormal blood clotting with kidney failure, damage to the central nervous system, and damage to other organs; a result of infection with Shiga toxin–producing E. coli and particularly likely to occur in children.

Answer 14

hemolytic-uretic syndrome

Question 15

Aims to lower stubbornly high rates of foodborne illnesses in an increasingly complex food system. It fosters technologies that enhance microbe traceability to help uncover sources of contamination and speed FDA’s response to an outbreak. Another important goal is to establish a food safety culture in which safeguarding the nation’s food supply is everyone’s concern.

Answer 15

FDA Food Safety Modernization Act (FSMA)

Question 16

Inspections of U.S. meat-processing plants, performed every day by USDA inspectors, help to ensure that these facilities meet government standards. Other food facilities are inspected less often, but FSMA regulations require that all producers of food sold in the United States must employ this plan to help prevent foodborne illnesses at their source. Each slaughterhouse, producer, packer, distributor, and transporter of susceptible foods must identify “critical control points” in its procedures that pose a risk of food contamination or bacterial growth. Once a control point is identified, the food producer must devise and implement verifiable ways to eliminate or minimize the risk. This is a proven method of controlling microbial contamination, and its effectiveness is evident: Salmonella contamination of U.S. poultry, eggs, ground beef, and pork has been greatly reduced, and E. coli infection from meats has dropped dramatically since this plan were implemented in these industries.

Answer 16

Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) plan

Question 17

Specifies the shelf life of the food. After this date, the food may still be safe for consumption if it has been handled and stored properly. Also called pull date.

Answer 17

sell by date

Question 18

Specifies the last date the food will be of the highest quality. After this date, quality is expected to diminish, although the food may still be safe for consumption if it has been handled and stored properly. Also called freshness date or quality assurance date.

Answer 18

Best if used by date

Question 19

The last day the food should be consumed. All foods except eggs should be discarded after this date. For eggs, the expiration date refers to the last day the eggs may be sold as “fresh eggs.” For safety, purchase eggs before the expiration date, keep them in their original carton in the refrigerator, and use them within 30 days.

Answer 19

expiration date

Question 20

The day the food was packaged or processed. When used on packages of fresh meats, pack dates can provide a general guide to freshness.

Answer 20

Pack date

Question 21

Staying mindful of food safety can prevent much misery from intestinal illnesses. Be aware that food can provide ideal conditions for bacteria to multiply and to produce toxins. Bacteria, particularly pathogens, require these three conditions to thrive:

Answer 21

• Nutrients
• Moisture
• Warmth,
  40 degree F to 140 degree F (4 degree Celsius to 60 degrees Celsius)

Question 22

Microbes love to nestle down in small, damp spaces, such as the inner cells of kitchen sponges or the pores between the fibers of wooden cutting boards. To reduce their numbers on sponges, surfaces, and utensils, you have four choices, each with benefits and drawbacks:

Answer 22

Poison the microbes with highly toxic chemicals such as bleach (one teaspoon per quart of water). Chlorine kills most organisms. However, chlorine is toxic to handle, it can ruin clothing, and when washed down household drains into the water supply, it forms chemicals harmful to people and wildlife.

Kill the microbes with heat. Soapy water heated to 140 degrees F kills most harmful organisms and washes away most others. This method takes effort, though, because the water must be truly scalding hot, well beyond the temperature of the tap.

Use an automatic dishwasher to combine both methods. It washes in water hotter than hands can tolerate, and most dishwasher detergents contain chlorine.

Use a microwave oven to kill microbes on sponges. Place the soaking wet sponge in a microwave oven, and heat it a minute or two until it is steaming hot (times vary). Cautions: handle hot sponges with tongs to avoid scalding your hands, and heat only wet sponges in the microwave oven; dry sponges can catch on fire.

The third and fourth options—washing in a dishwasher and microwaving—kill virtually all bacteria trapped in sponges, while soaking in a bleach solution misses more than 10 percent. Whatever the method, the effect is temporary and bacteria quickly return. The best action may be to replace kitchen sponges at least weekly, even if they don’t appear worn. Even better, skip the sponges and use a stack of kitchen dish cloths that can be tossed in the laundry daily.

Question 23

Raw foods, especially meats, eggs, and seafood, are likely to contain illness-causing bacteria. To prevent bacteria from spreading, keep the raw foods and their juices away from ready-to-eat foods known as this. It is the contamination of food through exposure to utensils, hands, or other surfaces that were previously in contact with contaminated food. For example, if you take burgers out to the grill on a plate, wash that plate in hot, soapy water before using it to retrieve the cooked burgers. If you use a cutting board to cut raw meat, wash the board, the knife, and your hands thoroughly with soap before handling other foods—and particularly before making a salad or other foods that are eaten raw. Many cooks keep a separate cutting board just for raw meats.

Answer 23

cross-contamination

Question 24

A thermometer that verifies the temperature of an appliance. An oven thermometer verifies that the oven is heating properly; a refrigerator/freezer thermometer tests for proper refrigerator temperature (<40 degree F, or <4 degree C) or freezer temperature (0 degree F, or -17 degree Celsius)

Answer 24

appliance thermometer

Question 25

A utensil combining a meat fork and an instant-read food thermometer.

Answer 25

fork thermometer

Question 26

A thermometer that, when inserted into food, measures its temperature within seconds; designed to test temperature of food at intervals.

Answer 26

instant-read thermometer

Question 27

A thermometer designed to remain in the food to give constant readings during cooking.

Answer 27

oven-safe thermometer

Question 28

A disposable timing device commonly used in turkeys. The center of the device contains a spring that “pops up” when food reaches the right temperature.

Answer 28

pop-up thermometer

Question 29

A disposable instant-read thermometer that changes color to indicate temperature. This type is often used in commercial food establishments to eliminate cross-contamination.

Answer 29

single-use temperature indicator

Question 29

Safe Food Storage Times in Refrigerator for Raw ground meats, breakfast or other raw sausages; raw fish or poultry; gravies are good for up to how many days?

Answer 29

1 to 2 days

Question 30

Safe Food Storage Times in Refrigerator for Raw steaks, roasts, or chops; cooked meats, poultry, vegetables, and mixed dishes; lunchmeats (packages opened); mayonnaise salads (chicken, egg, pasta, tuna); fresh vegetables (spinach, green beans, tomatoes) are good for up to how many days?

Answer 30

3 to 5 days

Question 31

Safe Food Storage Times in Refrigerator for Hard-cooked eggs, bacon, or hot dogs (opened packages); smoked sausages or seafood; milk, cottage cheese are good for up to how many weeks?

Answer 31

1 week

Question 32

Safe Food Storage Times in Refrigerator for Yogurt; carrots, celery, lettuce are good for up to how many weeks?

Answer 32

1 to 2 weeks

Question 33

Safe Food Storage Times in Refrigerator for Fresh eggs (in shells); lunchmeats, bacon, or hot dogs (packages unopened); dry sausages (pepperoni, hard salami); most aged and processed cheeses (Swiss, brick) are good for up to how many weeks?

Answer 33

2 to 4 weeks

Question 34

Safe Food Storage Times in Refrigerator for Mayonnaise (opened jar); most dry cheeses (Parmesan, Romano) are good for up t how many months?

Answer 34

2 months

Question 35

Require special handling. When produced on an industrial scale, these foods are often mingled together, such as in tanks of raw milk, vats of raw eggs, or masses of ground meats or poultry. Mingling causes problems when a pathogen from a single source contaminates the whole batch. Packages of raw meats, for example, bear labels to instruct consumers on meat safety.

Answer 35

Protein-rich foods

Question 36

Meats in the grocery cooler very often contain bacteria and provide a moist, nutritious environment perfect for microbial growth. Therefore, people who prepare meat should follow these basic meat-safety rules:

Answer 36

Cook all meat and poultry to the suggested temperatures.

Never defrost meat or poultry at room temperature or in warm water. The warmed outside layer of raw meat fosters bacterial growth.

Don’t cook large, thick, dense, raw meats or meatloaf in the microwave. Microwaves leave cool spots that can harbor microbes. Reminder: never prepare foods that will be eaten raw, such as lettuce or tomatoes, with the same utensils or on the same cutting board as was used to prepare raw meats, such as hamburgers.

Question 37

A disease agent consisting of an unusually folded protein that disrupts normal cell functioning. Prions cannot be controlled or killed by cooking or disinfecting, and the disease they cause cannot be treated. Prevention is the only form of control.

Answer 37

prion

Question 38

An often fatal illness of the nerves and brain observed in cattle and wild game and in people who consume affected meats. Also called mad cow disease. Causes a rare but fatal brain disorder in human beings who consume meat from afflicted animals. U.S. beef industry regulations minimize the risk of contracting this from eating beef.

Answer 38

bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)

Question 39

A stuffed turkey or chicken raises special concerns because bacteria from the bird’s cavity can contaminate the stuffing. During cooking, the center of the stuffing can stay cool long enough for bacteria to multiply. For safe stuffed poultry, follow the Fight Bac core principles—clean, separate, cook, and chill. In addition:

Answer 39

Cook any raw meat, poultry, or shellfish before adding it to stuffing.

Mix wet and dry ingredients right before stuffing into the cavity and stuff loosely; cook immediately afterward in a preheated oven set no lower than 325 degrees F (use an oven thermometer to make sure).

Use a meat thermometer to test the center of the stuffing. It should reach 165 degrees F.

To repeat: test the stuffing. Even if the poultry meat itself has reached the safe temperature 165 degrees F, the center of the stuffing may be cool enough to harbor live bacteria. Better yet, bake the stuffing separately.

Question 40

Foods such as lettuce, salad spinach, tomatoes, melons, berries, herbs, and scallions grow close to the ground, making them vulnerable to bacterial contamination from the soil, animal waste runoff, and manure fertilizers. Contamination often arises when growers and producers make sanitation mistakes. For this reason, the FSMA law described earlier includes this rule, which regulates growing and working conditions on farms, and requires safety plans from both U.S. and international produce suppliers.

Answer 40

Produce Safety Rule

Question 41

Washing produce at home to remove dirt and debris is important. However, washing may not entirely remove certain bacterial strains. These strains—E. coli, among others—exude this sticky, protective coating that glues microbes to each other and to food surfaces that can survive home rinsing or even industrial washing. Somewhat more effective is vigorous scrubbing with a vegetable brush to dislodge bacteria; rinsing with vinegar, which may help cut through biofilm; and removing and discarding the outer leaves from heads of leafy vegetables, such as cabbage and lettuce, before washing. Vinegar doesn’t sterilize foods, but it can reduce bacterial populations, and is safe to consume.

Answer 41

biofilm

Question 42

To greatly reduce these risks, the FDA’s new FSMA rules now require verification that imported foods have been produced and handled in keeping with U.S. food safety standards. In addition, to help U.S. consumers distinguish between imported and domestic foods, regulators require certain foods, including fish and shellfish, perishable items other than beef or pork, and some nuts to bear this label specifying where they were produced.

Answer 42

country of origin label

Question 43

Picnics can be fun, and packed lunches are a convenience, but to keep them safe, do the following:

Answer 43

Choose foods that are safe without refrigeration, such as whole fruit and vegetables, breads and crackers, shelf-stable foods, and canned spreads, fish and seafood, and cheeses to open and use on the spot.

Chill lunch bag foods and pack them in a thermal lunch bag with several reusable ice packs. Food at room temperature in a paper bag may be unsafe to eat by lunchtime.

Choose well-aged cheeses, such as cheddar and Swiss; skip fresh cheeses, such as cottage cheese and Mexican queso fresco. Aged cheese does well without chilling for an hour or two; for longer times, carry it on ice in a cooler or thermal lunch bag.

A handy tip: freeze beverages, such as juice boxes or pouches, to replace ice packs in a thermal bag. As the beverages thaw in the hours before lunch, they keep the foods cold.

Note that individual servings of cheese or cold cuts prepackaged with crackers and promoted as lunch foods keep well, but they are high in saturated fat and sodium, and they cost triple the price of the foods purchased separately. Additionally, their excessive packaging adds to the nation’s waste disposal burden.

Mayonnaise, despite its reputation for easy spoilage, is itself somewhat spoilage-resistant because of its acidity. Mayonnaise mixed with chopped ingredients in pasta, meat, or vegetable salads, however, spoils readily. The chopped ingredients have extensive surface areas for bacteria to invade, and cutting boards, hands, and kitchen utensils used in preparation often harbor bacteria. For safe chopped raw foods, start with clean chilled ingredients, and then chill the finished product in shallow containers; keep it chilled before and during serving; and promptly refrigerate any remainder.

Question 44

Follow the 2, 2, and 4 rules of leftover safety:

Answer 44

within 2 hours of cooking, refrigerate the food in clean, shallow containers about 2 inches deep, and use it up within 4 days or toss it out. Exceptions: stuffing and gravy must be used within 2 days, and if room temperature reaches 90 degrees F, all cooked foods must be chilled after 1 hour of exposure. Remember to use shallow containers, not deep ones, for quick chilling.

Question 45

The application of ionizing radiation to foods to reduce insect infestation or microbial contamination or to slow the ripening or sprouting process. Also called cold pasteurization. Has been extensively evaluated over the past 50 years.

Answer 45

Food irradiation

Question 46

Food irradiation has been extensively evaluated over the past 50 years. Approved in more than 40 countries, its use is endorsed by numerous health agencies, including the World Health Organization (WHO) and the American Medical Association. Food irradiation protects consumers and offers other benefits:

Answer 46

Control of foodborne illnesses. Irradiation effectively eliminates many organisms that cause foodborne illnesses, such as Salmonella, E. coli, and parasites.

Preservation. Irradiation curbs spoilage and extends the shelf life of foods by destroying or inactivating organisms; it can also destroy the mold that produces the cancer-causing toxin aflatoxin.

Control of insects. Irradiation penetrates tough exoskeletons to destroy insects on imported fruit. Irradiation also reduces the need for other pest-control practices that may harm the fruit.

Delay of sprouting and ripening. Irradiation inhibits the sprouting of onions and potatoes and delays the ripening of many kinds of fruit to increase shelf life.

Sterilization. Irradiation can be used to sterilize some products, such as dried herbs, spices, and teas. In hospitals, sterilized foods are useful for patients with severely impaired immunity.

Question 47

How Irradiation Works:

Irradiation exposes foods to controlled doses of gamma rays from the radioactive element cobalt 60. As the rays pass through living cells, they disrupt DNA, proteins, and other internal structures, killing or deactivating the cells. For example, low radiation doses can kill the growing cells in the “eyes” of potatoes, preventing them from sprouting. Low doses also delay the ripening of bananas, avocados, and other fruits. Higher doses easily penetrate tough insect exoskeletons and mold and bacterial cell walls to destroy them. Irradiation works even on frozen food, making it uniquely useful in protecting foods such as whole frozen turkeys.

Irradiation does not sterilize most foods because doses high enough to kill all microorganisms would also destroy the food. This raises an important point: irradiation is intended to complement, not replace, other traditional food-safety methods. Irradiation cannot entirely protect people from poor sanitation on the farm, in industry, or at home. In approved doses, irradiation does not noticeably change the taste, texture, or appearance of most foods, and it does not make foods radioactive.

Question 48

Consumer Concerns about Irradiation:

Many consumers associate radiation with cancer, birth defects, and mutations, so they respond negatively to the idea of irradiating foods. Some erroneously fear that food will become contaminated with radioactive particles. More realistic fears concern transporting radioactive materials, training workers to handle them safely, and safely disposing of spent wastes, which remain radioactive for many years. The food industry must comply with strict operating standards and regulations.

Finally, some worry that irradiated foods are no longer nutritious. Small amounts of certain vitamins are destroyed by irradiation, but the losses are no greater than losses incurred during canning or drying.

Question 49

A technique used to extend the shelf life of perishable foods; the food is packaged in a gas-impermeable container from which air is removed or to which an oxygen-free gas mixture, such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen, is added to deprive microbes of oxygen.
Common packaging methods improve the safety and shelf life of many fresh and prepared foods. Vacuum packaging or this reduces the oxygen inside a package. This makes it possible for unopened packages of soft pasta noodles, baked goods, prepared foods, fresh and cured meats, seafood, dry beans and other dry products, and ground and whole-bean coffee to stay fresh and safe much longer than they would in conventional packaging.

Answer 49

modified atmosphere packaging (MAP)

Question 50

Modified Atmosphere Packaging
Reducing Oxygen:

Answer 50

Inhibits growth of oxygen-dependent microbes.

Prevents discoloration of cut vegetables and fruit.

Prevents spoilage of fats by rancidity and development of “off” flavors.

Slows ripening of fruit and vegetables and enzyme-induced breakdown of vitamins.

Perishable foods packaged with MAP must still be chilled properly to keep them safe from microbes that flourish in anaerobic environments, such as the Clostridium botulinum bacterium. Chilling precut salad greens is also a must: temperatures above 50 degrees F cause a dangerous change in E. coli bacteria strains present in MAP-bagged lettuces that helps them to survive the eater’s stomach acid, increasing their ability to cause infection.

Question 51

What is a common example of a food that contains many natural poisons, including solanine, a powerful, bitter, neurotoxin. Solanine isn’t itself green in color, but it forms alongside harmless green chlorophyll when sufficient light rays strike this food..? The small amounts of solanine normally found in this food are harmless, but solanine can build up to toxic levels when these are exposed to light during storage. Cooking does not destroy solanine, but much of this food’s solanine develops in a thin layer just beneath the skin so it can often be peeled off, making this safe to eat. If the flesh tastes bitter, however, throw it out.

Answer 51

Potatoes

Question 52

Solanine serves as a reminder of three principles:

Answer 52

First, poisons are poisons, whether made by people or by nature. It’s not the source of a compound that makes it hazardous but its chemical structure. Second, any substance—even pure water—can be toxic when consumed in excess. Third, by choosing a variety of foods, the eater can dilute the toxins found in any one food by the volume of all the other foods in the diet.

Question 53

A Sampling of Natural Toxins:

Answer 53

1.) Herbs: Belladonna and hemlock are infamous poisonous herbs, but sassafras is also toxic; it contains the carcinogen and liver toxin safrole, which is so potent that it is banned from use in foods and beverages.
2.) Cabbage Family: Raw cabbage, turnips, mustard greens, and radishes all contain small quantities of harmful goitrogens, compounds that can interfere with thyroid hormone production and when eaten in excess, enlarge the thyroid gland.
3.) Foods with cyanogen’s: Cyanogens, precursors to the deadly poison cyanide, are found in bitter varieties of cassava, a root vegetable staple for many people. Most cassava is low in cyanogens.

Apricot and cherry pits present the cyanogen amygdalin, a fake cancer cure often passed off as a vitamin. This poison kills cancer cells but only at doses that can kill the person, too. Other fruit pits contain lower concentrations.
4.) Seafood red tide toxin: Seafood may occasionally become contaminated with the so-called red tide toxin from algae blooms. Eating the contaminated seafood can cause paralysis.

Question 54

Chemicals used to control insects, diseases, weeds, fungi, and other pests on crops and around animals. Used broadly, the term includes herbicides (to kill weeds), insecticides (to kill insects), and fungicides (to kill fungi). Helps ensure the survival of food crops, but the damage it does to the environment is considerable and increasing. Damage all living cells, plants and animals in natural systems, and present risk to people who produce, transport, and apply them. High doses in laboratory animals cause birth defects, sterility, tumors, organ damage, and central nervous system impairment. Such high doses are extremely unlikely to occur in human beings, however, except through accidental spills. Residues can survive processing on agricultural products and traces are often present in foods served to people, but pose negligible risks to most people.

Answer 54

pesticides

Question 55

The use of pesticides on food crops demonstrates a principle inherent to nutrition decision making: the expected benefits of an action or inaction must be weighed against its risks. In general, agricultural pesticides:

Answer 55

Protect crops from insect damage.

Increase potential yield per acre.

But they also:

Accumulate in the food chain.

Kill valuable pollinators, such as bees.

Kill pests’ natural predators, including birds and insects.

Pollute the water, soil, and air.

Scientists, farmers, and consumers must weigh the risks and benefits to determine their best course of action.

Question 56

Why infants and Children are more susceptible and vulnerable to effects of pesticides:

Answer 56

irst, the immature human detoxifying system cannot effectively cope with poisons, so they tend to stay longer in the body. Second, a child’s developing brain cannot yet fully exclude pesticides, many of which kill insects by interfering with normal nerve and brain chemistry.

Third, children’s bodies are small in size, yet their pesticide exposure is often greater than that of adults. Children pick up pesticides through normal child behaviors, such as playing outdoors on treated soil or lawns; handling sticks, rocks, and other contaminated objects; crawling on treated carpets, furniture, and floors; placing fingers and toys in their mouths; seldom washing their hands; and using fingers instead of utensils to grasp foods.

Fourth, children eat proportionally more food per pound of body weight than do adults, and even the trace amounts of pesticides on foods can contribute to total exposure. Fortunately, these traces rarely exceed allowable limits, and most can be further reduced by washing produce thoroughly and following guidelines. Another possibility for reducing pesticide exposure is to choose organic foods—read the Consumer’s Guide for perspective.

Question 57

Ways to Reduce Pesticide Residue Exposure:

Answer 57

Trim the fat from meat, and remove the skin from poultry and fish; discard fats and oils in broths and pan drippings. (Pesticide residues concentrate in the animal’s fat.)

Select fruit and vegetables with intact skins.

Wash fresh produce in running water. Use a soft brush, and rinse thoroughly.

Use a knife to peel an orange or grapefruit; do not bite into the peel.

Discard the outer leaves of leafy vegetables such as cabbage and lettuce.

Peel waxed fruit and vegetables; waxes don’t wash off and can seal in pesticide residues.

Peel vegetables such as carrots and fruit such as apples when it seems necessary. (Peeling removes not only pesticides that remain in or on the peel but also fibers, vitamins, and minerals.)

Choose organically grown foods, which generally contain fewer pesticides.

Question 58

Regulation and Reference Dosage of Pesticides:

Answer 58

Over 10,000 regulations set reference doses for hundreds of pesticide chemicals approved for use on U.S. crops. These limits generally represent between 1/100th and 1/1,000th of the highest dose that still causes no adverse health effects in laboratory animals. If a pesticide is misused, growers risk fines, lawsuits, and destruction of their crops.

Question 59

Pesticide-Resistant Insects:

Ironically, some pesticides also promote the survival of the very pests they are intended to wipe out. A pesticide aimed at certain insects may kill almost 100 percent of them, but because of the genetic variability of large populations, a few hardy individuals survive exposure. These resistant insects then multiply free of competition and soon produce offspring with inherited pesticide resistance that attack the crop with enhanced vigor. Controlling resistant insects requires application of different pesticides, which leads to the emergence of a population of insects that survive multiple pesticides. The same biological sequences occur when herbicides and fungicides are repeatedly applied to weeds and fungal pests. One alternative to this destructive series of events is to manage pests using a combination of improved farming techniques and biological controls, as organic farmers do.

Question 60

Natural Pesticides:

Pesticides are not produced only in laboratories; they also occur in nature. The nicotine in tobacco and phytochemicals of celery are examples. Another, Bt pesticide, an insecticidal peptide made by a common soil bacterium. (Reminder: Peptide refers to bonds that link amino acids.) This pesticide is extracted and sprayed on organic farm crops and organic gardens; it is also produced in the tissues of genetically engineered crops (see the Controversy section).

If farmers could create an ideal pesticide, it would destroy pests in the field and then disappear, leaving no trace of toxic residue either on the food or in the soil. Unfortunately, though, many pesticides are persistent: they remain on food and in the environment after their work is done. Peptide pesticides, having shorter lifetimes, make a better choice than most other pesticides.

Question 61

For a half-century, ranchers and farmers have dosed livestock with these as part of a daily feeding regimen to ward off infections common in animals living in crowded conditions. These drugs also speed up animal growth and increase feed efficiency, but their use solely for these purposes is prohibited.

Answer 61

Antibiotic drugs

Question 62

When bacteria too frequently encounter antibiotics, they adapt, losing their sensitivity to the drugs over time. This if leftover can cause severe infections in people – infections that do not yield to standard antibiotic therapy, and often end in fatality. In other words, bacterial strains that cause increasingly common and potentially fatal infectious diseases that do not respond to standard antibiotic therapy. An example is MRSA, a multidrug-resistant Staphyloccocus aureus bacterial strain.

Answer 62

antibiotic-resistant bacteria

Question 63

Cattle producers in the United States commonly inject their herds with this to spur lean tissue growth, augment milk production, and reduce feed requirements. The FDA and WHO deem the use of this to be safe, and the FDA does not require testing of food products for traces of it. Ranchers use this as well because more meat and milk on less feed yields higher profits. The environment may profit as well. Smaller herds that eat sparingly require less cleared land and fewer resources are necessary to produce and transport their feed. Tests of conventional milk, produced without applications of this hormone, and organic milk reveal no differences in terms of antibiotic, bacteria, hormone, or nutrient contents.

Answer 63

bovine growth hormone (BGH)

Question 64

A poisonous metallic element. In trace amounts, arsenic is believed to be an essential nutrient in some animal species. Arsenic is often added to insecticides and weed killers and, in tiny amounts, to certain animal drugs. Builds up in poultry meat, wastes, and feathers. This adds to the natural arsenic content of water and soil, and ultimately increases this in the food supply, including baby foods. The FDA has asked manufacturers of baby foods to test and limit this in their products. Some baby food manufacturers have discontinued products that are most likely to contain this. Foods such as rice and apple juice—even organic apple juice—contain small amounts of this. For apple juice, the FDA is confident in its safety for people who consume normal amounts and vary their choices. People with gluten sensitivities, especially children, often have unusually high intakes of rice, one of the few gluten-free grains, increasing their exposure. Other examples are fish, shellfish, eggs, milk products, and drinking water.

Answer 64

Arsenic

Question 65

Pesticide Residues and Health:

When tested, organic foods generally contain no pesticides, or at least lower concentrations than similar, conventionally grown products. Also, it is clear that eating a diet of organic foods measurably reduces pesticide exposure. When scientists measured a marker for pesticide exposure in urine samples from thousands of people across the United States, they found that people who reported eating organic foods had the lowest concentrations of the marker—an indication that they had been exposed to less pesticide.

Does this mean that eating a diet of organic foods is better for health than eating a conventional diet? Evidence is suggestive but inconclusive. For example, researchers of one study reported lower cancer risks with more frequent organic food consumption. These authors accounted for such factors as diet quality, exercise, and smoking but could not entirely rule out effects from other factors. Children are more sensitive than adults to pesticides, and their risks are less well defined, so parents may wish to reduce their children’s exposure from all sources, including foods. The extra cost of organic food may buy nothing more than peace of mind for parents, however.

Question 66

Learn: Consumer’s Guide To Understanding:

A popular consumer group advocates choosing organically grown varieties of certain fruits and vegetables. Their list correctly reflects the results of federal tests for pesticide residues on produce—the foods they name the “dirty dozen” test highest for one or more pesticide residues. So far, so good. However, the group then goes on to urge consumers to choose organic varieties of these foods, implying that they can reduce their health risks by doing so. But this doesn’t tell the whole story—the health risks from eating properly washed conventional varieties of those foods are infinitesimally small.

Still, the risk from pesticide residues is not zero, and many people fear harm from unfamiliar chemicals applied to food in any amount. Such worries are emotional, not scientific, and they can needlessly put consumers in a bind. If people cannot afford organic foods but fear that conventional foods may harm them, they may limit the amount or variety of fruits and vegetables they take in. This unwise choice greatly increases health risks.

Question 67

Nutrient Composition:

Few nutrient differences exist between conventional and organic plant-based foods, and these generally fall within expected variations among food crops. Small nutrient differences occur with varying soil types, soil nutrients, seasonal rainfall, or other factors. However, organic foods may be higher in certain phytochemicals. This makes sense because plants, unassisted by pesticides, muster their own phytochemical defenses to ward off insects and other dangers.

Some organic meat and milk may provide a little more omega-3 fatty acids than conventional products, but only if the animals foraged in pastures where wild plants grew. Animals raised on fields of planted grass develop less omega-3 fatty acids.

The most meaningful nutrient comparisons are not between organic and conventional foods but between whole foods and heavily processed ones, a comparison made clear in the Consumer’s Guide of Chapter 7. Organic candy bars, soy desserts, and fried vegetable snack chips are no more nutritious (or less fattening) than ordinary treats, and they can throw health-seeking consumers off course.

Environmental Benefits:

Ideally, growers of organic foods use sustainable agricultural techniques (see Chapter 15 and Controversy 15) that minimize harm to the environment. They add composted animal manure or vegetable matter instead of the synthetic, petroleum-based fertilizers that run off into waterways and pollute them. They battle pests and diseases by using a pesticide derived from a bacterial toxin, by rotating crops each season, by introducing predatory insects to kill off pests, or by picking off large insects or diseased plant parts by hand.

Farmers and ranchers who sell organic eggs, dairy products, and meats must provide their animals with at least some access to outdoor environments. Such animals do not receive growth hormones, daily antibiotics, and the other drugs that become necessary when conventionally raised animals are stressed in overcrowded pens. Without overcrowding, runoff of animal waste, a threat to the nation’s waterways, is reduced, too.

Organics’ Potential Pitfalls:

Foods contaminated with untreated manure or feces from fertilizer, runoff, or wild animals can harbor dangerous bacteria, but such contamination is equally likely to occur in organic foods and conventional foods. Proper composting (decaying) of manure-based fertilizers eliminates pathogens.

Organic ingredients imported from other countries often cost less than domestic ingredients and so make attractive alternatives to dollar-conscious organic food manufacturers. These options are becoming more reliable as FSMA regulations improve food safety procedures and close gaps in oversight for overseas producers. Still, shipping organic ingredients over long distances violates principles of sustainability.

Moving Ahead:

The practical marketplace advice, based on science, is this: buy safe, affordable conventionally grown fruit and vegetables, wash them well, and consume them with confidence. If you prefer the taste of organic fruits and vegetables, if you appreciate extra care of animals and the environment, and if you can afford them, you can choose organics with equal confidence.

If you want organic foods at bargain prices, you might ask for oddly shaped, or overripe or underripe produce at farmer’s markets. Alternatively, try growing some leafy greens, herbs, and tomatoes in pots on a sunny deck—a surprisingly simple and rewarding endeavor. Whatever your choice, choose nutritious fruit and vegetables in abundance.

Question 68

True or False?
The risk to health from pesticides in foods is exceedingly small.

Answer 68

True

Question 69

Any substance occurring in food by accident; any food constituent that is not normally present. Some contaminants aren’t cause for concerns but the contaminants that do linger and resist environmental breakdown, as well as interact with body systems without being metabolized and excreted are accumulated at a higher concentration known as bioaccumulation.

Answer 69

food contaminant

Question 70

The accumulation of a contaminant in the tissues of living things at higher and higher concentrations along the food chain.

Answer 70

bioaccumulation

Question 71

The toxic effect of a chemical depends largely on two factors:

Answer 71

1.) the degree of the chemical’s toxicity and the degree of human exposure. In small enough amounts, even poisonous substances may be tolerable and of no consequence to health; in larger amounts, even innocuous substances may be dangerous. The old saying, “The dose makes the poison,” means that with a large enough dose, normally benign substances, even sand, can kill a person. It is equally true that even poisons can be benign in miniscule doses.

2.) How much of a threat do environmental contaminants pose to the food supply? It depends on the contaminant. In general, the threat remains small because the FDA monitors contaminants in foods and issues warnings when food contamination is detected. Mercury, described next, is just one of many potentially toxic contaminants in the food supply.

Question 72

Stable, oily synthetic chemicals, once used in hundreds of U.S. industrial operations, that persist today in underwater sediments and contaminate fish and shellfish. Now banned from use in the United States, these circulate globally from areas where they are still in use. Cause cancer, nervous system damage, immune dysfunction, and a number of other serious health effects.

Answer 72

PCB’s

Question 73

Mercury, PCBs, and other hazardous substances are often detected in food fish species worldwide, but the heavy metal mercury is of special concern. Scientists learned of mercury’s potential for harm through tragedy. In the mid-20th century, more than 120 people, including 23 infants, in Minamata, Japan, became ill with a strange disease, as depicted in Figure 12–15. Mortality was high, and the survivors suffered progressive, irreversible blindness, deafness, loss of coordination, and severe intellectual and physical disabilities.

Finally, the cause of this misery was discovered:

Answer 73

manufacturing plants in the region were discharging mercury into the waters of the bay, where aquatic bacteria metabolized it into the nerve poison methylmercury. The fish in the bay were accumulating the poison in their bodies, and townspeople who regularly ate fish from the bay fell ill. The infants’ mothers had eaten fish during their pregnancies, but were spared because the poison concentrates in fetal tissues.

Today, in the United States, scientists warn that methylmercury concentrations in our nation’s ocean and freshwater fisheries, and also in some popular food fish species, are unacceptably high and growing higher by the year. The FDA advises all pregnant women, women who may become pregnant, nursing mothers, and young children to avoid certain marine fish species known to be high in methylmercury.

No one expects the tragic results of the 1950s to occur again, but efforts to reduce methylmercury concentrations in global fisheries are needed to help protect these valuable and imperiled resources. Methylmercury is persistent in the environment, so today’s efforts to reduce pollution of ocean, lake, and river waters will take years to be effective.

Question 74

Only 1 percent of all the earth’s water is potable, and all of the usable fresh water comes from what two sources?

Answer 74

surface water and groundwater

Question 75

Water that comes from lakes, rivers, and reservoirs. Are directly exposed to contamination from microbes or pesticides that wash in from land. Too often, industry and energy operations dump their wastes, sometimes directly into nearby water bodies, rather than safely dispose of them. This water contamination is often reversible because rainfall and snowmelt constantly refresh and cleanse streams, lakes, and rivers. As moving water tumbles over rocks and riverbeds, aeration and sunlight help cleanse the water, while aquatic plants and microorganisms trap certain contaminants and break down others.

Answer 75

surface water

Question 76

Water that comes from underground aquifers (a section of porous rock or sediment that is saturated with groundwater originating from precipitation that seeps through the soil.). This water is contaminated more slowly than surface water, but when contaminants above ground seep through the soil to the water lying below, they tend to stay there. This water is especially susceptible to contamination from hazardous waste sites, dumps and landfills, underground tanks of gasoline, and improperly discarded household or industrial chemicals and solvents.

Answer 76

Groundwater

Question 77

Are both monitored for contaminants and treated to make tap water safe to drink. During treatment, a disinfectant (usually, chlorine) is added to kill bacteria. The addition of chlorine to these water systems is an important public health measure that all but eliminated such life-threatening waterborne diseases as typhoid fever. On the negative side, chlorination is often associated with increased bladder cancer risk and harms to the environment.

Note: Most tap water is safe to drink because it is tested regularly for toxins and treated to kill disease-causing microbial organisms. The EPA is charged with ensuring the safety of public water systems. However, as municipal water systems age and water demand grows, the risk of contamination increases. An extreme example was a widely reported incident in a Michigan city; government officials there failed to comply with regulations and many people were needlessly exposed to toxic levels of lead and other hazards.

Answer 77

Public water systems

Question 78

Is Bottled Water Safest?

Consumers who doubt the safety of tap water often pay 250 to 10,000 times more per gallon to buy bottled water instead. The FDA regulates bottled water processing, packaging, and labeling, and sets quality and safety standards similar to those governing public water systems. Bottled water is neither safer nor healthier than properly regulated, tested, and treated tap water. In fact, some bottled waters come from the same municipal sources as tap water. Recalls of bottled waters have occurred because of E. coli contamination. Drinking directly from a bottle contaminates the leftover water with bacteria from the mouth. As a safeguard, the FDA recommends that consumers should refrigerate bottled water after opening.

Disposable plastic water bottles require considerable fossil fuel (and many gallons of water) to produce and transport, and they pose serious disposal problems. Single-serving bottles can be recycled, but 80 percent of the 35 billion plastic water bottles purchased in the United States each year end up in landfills, in incinerators, or as litter on land or they degrade to become microplastics (particles of plastic debris that contaminate water and soil) in rivers, lakes, and oceans. Microplastics harm wildlife and are potentially harmful to people. By using stainless steel or other reusable water bottles, consumers can save money for themselves, protect wildlife, and reduce waste in their communities.

Question 79

Additives:
substances that are added to foods but are not normally consumed by themselves as foods.

Are Food Additives Safe?
Low on the FDA’s list of food worries and thousands are approved for use and controlled and studied for safety reasons.

Most additives used in foods offer benefits that may outweigh their risks or that may make the risks worth taking. In the case of color additives that only enhance the appearance of foods without improving their health value or safety, no amount of risk may be deemed worth taking. In contrast, the FDA finds it worth taking a small, uncertain risk associated with nitrites on processed meats because nitrites are proven to inhibit harmful bacterial growth in these foods.

Question 80

Selected Food Additives and Their Functions with Examples:

Answer 80

1.) Antimicrobial agents (preservatives)–> Functions: Prevent food spoilage by mold or bacterial growth. Examples: Acetic acid (vinegar), benzoic acid, nitrates and nitrites, propionic acid, salt, sugar, sorbic acid.
2.) Antioxidants (preservatives)–> Functions: Prevent oxidative changes and delay rancidity of fats; prevent browning of fruit and veggie products. Examples: BHA, BHT, propyl gallate, sulfites, vitamin C and E.
3.) Artificial colors–> Functions: Add color to foods. Examples: Certified food colors such as dyes from vegetables (beet juice or beta-carotene) or synthetic dyes (tartrazine and others).
4.) Artificial flavors, flavor enhancers–> Functions: Add flavors; boost natural flavors of foods. Examples: Amyl acetate (artificial banana flavor), nonnutritive sweeteners, MSG (monosodium glutamate), salt, spices, sugars.
5.) Bleaching agents–> Functions: Whiten foods such as flour or cheese. Examples: Peroxides
6.) Chelating agents–> Functions: Prevent discoloration, off flavors, and rancidity. Examples: Citric acid, malic acid, tartaric acid (cream of tartar).
7.) Nutrient additives–> Functions: Improve nutritional value. Examples: Vitamins and Minerals
8.) Stabilizing and thickening agents–> Functions: Maintain emulsions, foams, or suspensions or lend the desired thick consistency to foods. Examples: Dextrins (short glucose chains), pectin, starch, or gums such as agar, carrageenan, guar, and locust bean.

Question 81

Regulations Governing Additives:

Before using a new additive in food products, a manufacturer must test the additive and satisfy the FDA on two counts:

It is effective (it does what it is supposed to do).

It can be detected and measured in the final food product.

Then the manufacturer must provide proof that it is safe (causes no birth defects or other injuries) when fed in large doses to experimental animals. This formal process may take several years. Then manufacturers must comply with a host of other regulations that ensure the proper use and application of the additive as well. For example, additives may not be used in any application where they disguise faulty or inferior products, or deceive consumers, or significantly destroy nutrients in foods.

Question 82

Many additives are exempted from complying with the procedures just described because they have been used for a long time and their use entails no known hazards. More and more additives are being submitted to the FDA for inclusion on this list. It was established by the FDA, of food additives long in use and believed to be safe. No additives are permanently approved, however; all are periodically reviewed as new facts emerge.

Answer 82

generally recognized as safe (GRAS) list

Question 83

In reference to food additives, a zone between the concentration normally used and that at which a hazard exists. Most additives that involve risk are allowed in foods only at concentrations at least 100 times lower than the highest concentration at which the risk is still zero (1/100). Some natural toxins produced in food by plants occur at levels that bring their margins of safety close to 1/10. For some trace elements, it is about 1/5, meaning than five time the amount normally used would be hazardous. People commonly consume table salt in daily amounts only three to five times less than those that cause serious toxicity.

Answer 83

margin of safety

Question 84

Additives:
How Salt and Sugar Work to improve Safety and Quality–>

Answer 84

Both salt and sugar work by withdrawing water from the food; microbes cannot grow without sufficient moisture. Safety questions surrounding these two preservatives center on their overuse as flavoring agents—salt and sugar make foods taste delicious and are often added with a liberal hand.

Question 85

Additives:
How Nitrites Improve Safety and Quality–>

Answer 85

The nitrites added to meats and meat products help preserve their color (especially the pink color of hot dogs and other cured meats) and to inhibit rancidity and thwart bacterial growth. In particular, nitrites prevent growth of the deadly Clostridium botulinum bacterium. Even though nitrites are useful, they raise safety issues. Once in the stomach, nitrites can be converted to nitrosamines, chemicals linked with colon cancer in animals. Other nitrite sources, such as tobacco and beer, may be more significant than foods as sources of nitrosamine-related compounds. Still, processed meats are associated with an elevated risk of colon cancer and death, so cautious consumers limit intakes of these foods.

Question 86

Additives:
How Sulfites Improve Safety and Quality–>

Answer 86

Sulfites prevent oxidation in many processed foods, in alcoholic beverages (especially wine), and in drugs. Some people experience dangerous allergic reactions to the sulfites, so their use is strictly controlled. The FDA prohibits sulfite use on food meant to be eaten raw (fresh grapes are an exception), and it requires foods and drugs to list on their labels any sulfites that are present. For most people, sulfites do not pose a hazard in the amounts used in products, but they have one other drawback. Because sulfites can destroy significant amounts of thiamin in foods, you can’t count on a food that contains sulfites to contribute to your daily thiamin intake.

Question 87

Make foods taste sweet without promoting dental decay, raising blood glucose concentrations, or providing the empty calories of sugar. The human taste buds perceive many of them as supersweet, so just tiny amounts are added to foods and beverages to achieve the desired sweet taste. The FDA endorses the use of these as safe over a lifetime when used within acceptable daily intake (ADI) levels (estimated amount of sweetener that can be consumed daily over a person’s lifetime without any adverse effects.).

Answer 87

Nonnutritive Sweeteners

Question 88

Safety of Nonnutritive Sweeteners:

Through the years, questions have emerged about the safety of nonnutritive sweeteners, particularly saccharin and aspartame. For example, early research indicated that large quantities of saccharin caused bladder tumors in laboratory animals, but research today does not support a causative link in people.

Early animal research suggested possible harm from nonnutritive sweeteners to microbial communities in the intestine. Today’s evidence does not support this effect in people who use these sweeteners; moderate amounts are unlikely to harm to the microbiome.

Question 89

What is one of the most thoroughly studied food additives ever approved by the FDA? Its a sweetener made from two amino acids (phenylalanine and aspartic acid). Evidence linking this with chronic diseases is weak or nonexistent. However, poses a threat to those with inherited disease phenylketonuria (PKU), a disease that, without a low phenylalanine diet, can damage the developing brain in children. Food labels warn people with PKU of the extra phenylalanine in these as sweetened foods. In any case, artificially sweetened foods and drinks have no place in the diets of infants or toddlers. A person with digestive or other problems who has found that a sweetener causes symptoms should use a different sweetener.

Answer 89

Aspartame

Question 90

The sodium salt of the amino acid glutamic acid, is used widely in restaurants, especially Asian restaurants. In addition to enhancing other flavors, this itself presents a basic taste (termed umami) independent of the well-known sweet, salty, bitter, and sour tastes. The amino acid glutamate in this is chemically indistinguishable from the glutamate present in food proteins, and the body metabolizes both in the same way.

Answer 90

MSG

Question 91

In a few sensitive individuals, MSG produces adverse reactions known as this. It’s the acute, temporary, and self-limiting reactions, including burning sensations or flushing of the skin with pain and headache, experienced by sensitive people upon ingesting large doses of MSG. Plain broth with MSG seems most likely to bring on symptoms in sensitive people, whereas carbohydrate-rich foods, such as rice or noodles, seem to protect against them. Deemed safe for adults, MSG is prohibited in baby foods. The FDA requires that food labels disclose each additive, including MSG, by its full name.

Answer 91

MSG symptom complex

Question 92

Fat replacers and artificial fats are ingredients that provide some of the taste, texture, and cooking qualities of fats but with fewer or no calories. Many fat replacers are derived from carbohydrate, protein, or fat, and these provide a few calories (but fewer than the fats they replace). List the following fat and replacers:

Answer 92

Carbohydrate-based fat replacers: primarily as thickeners or stabilizers in foods such as soups and salad dressings.

Protein-based fat replacers:
provide a creamy feeling in the mouth and are often used in foods such as ice creams and yogurts.

Fat-based replacers:
act as emulsifiers and are heat stable, making them most versatile in shortenings used in cake mixes and cookies.

Question 93

An artificial fat that was once commonly used to make fat-free chips and snack foods but its popularity and use has declined in recent years. a nonnutritive artificial fat made from sucrose and fatty acids; also called sucrose polyester; trade name, Olean. Digestive enzymes cannot break its chemical bonds, so this cannot be absorbed. It binds fat-soluble vitamins and phytochemicals, causing their excretion; to partly prevent these losses, manufacturers saturate this with vitamins A, D, E, and K. Large doses can cause digestive distress, but no serious problems are known to occur with normal use.

Answer 93

olestra

Question 94

Substances that can get into food not through intentional introduction but as a result of contact with the food during growing, processing, packaging, storing, or some other stage before the food is consumed. Also called accidental or indirect additives. Are really contaminants because no one intentionally adds them to foods. Examples: compounds released from plastics; tiny bits of glass, paper, metal, and the like from packages; or unavoidable filth, such as tiny amounts of rodent hairs or insect fragments. Are well regulated, and once discovered in food, their safety must be confirmed by strict procedures like those governing intentional additives.

Answer 94

incidental additives

Question 95

Incidental additive. A compound that hardens plastic and a component of epoxy resin. BPA can leach from some plastic containers into the foods and beverages contained inside. In other words, migrates into many foods and beverages from plastic-lined food cans, soft-drink cans, and certain clear, hard plastic water bottles. Its analogs have raised concerns among scientists who have reported potential disrupting effects on metabolism, hormonal activities, reproduction, neurological development, and problem behavior in young children. In rats, preliminary findings seem to indicate little significant effect, particularly in terms of cancer formation. In people, greater exposure has recently been linked with a higher mortality risk. More research is needed to support or refute this finding. Manufacturers have replaced this in baby bottles, toddler “sippy” cups, and infant formula packaging because of the potential risks. The FDA so far concludes that this is safe but is continuing to investigate its effects.

Answer 95

BPA

Question 96

Microwave Packages:

Some microwave products are sold in “active packaging” that participates in cooking the food. Pizza, for example, may rest on a cardboard pan coated with a thin film of metal that absorbs microwave energy and may heat up to 500 degrees F. During the intense heat, some particles of the packaging components migrate into the food. This is expected; the particles have been tested for safety.

In contrast, incidental additives from plastic packages may not be entirely safe for consumption. To avoid them, do not reuse disposable plastic margarine tubs or single-use trays from microwavable meals for microwaving other foods. Use glass or ceramic containers or plastic ones labeled as safe for the microwave. In addition, wrap foods in microwave-safe plastic wraps, waxed paper, cooking bags, parchment paper, or white microwave-safe paper towels instead of ordinary wraps before microwave cooking.

Question 97

Behavior Change and Applications of Food Safety Practices:

Answer 97

1.) Take Inventory: assess yourself and your personal safety
2.) Be Observant: stay alert to danger signs whenever and wherever you eat.
3.) Beware of False Thinking: don’t rely on myths and platitudes to guide food safety practices. Stand firm on your knowledge of food safety principles.
4.) Take Action–> If food-safety rules are broken, you have two choices: inform the person in charge or fellow diners of the dangers, or simply protect yourself by enjoying the available safe foods, such as breads, intact fruit, boiled eggs, and hard cheeses. Be forewarned that the first choice, informing people, entails a social risk: they may dismiss your concerns, or worse, take offense. This risk may be deemed worth taking, however, because foodborne illnesses can be serious. In any case, protect yourself.

In the case of raw shellfish, you might mention that raw seafood is very likely to harbor pathogens. Then order your oysters or clams baked, broiled, fried, or steamed to the well-done stage, or substitute cooked peel-and-eat shrimp. In the case of sushi, safer options abound: rolls made with real or imitation crab, cooked shrimp, fish, or eel, or refreshing vegetable rolls. That way, you can enjoy the gathering without endangering your health.

The cookie dough scenario is trickier because no options may exist, particularly in someone’s home. There, you may have to take a stand. Politely refuse the dough, explain the risk, and say you’ll wait for the baked cookies instead. You might also ask for something else, such as a glass of water or other beverage.

Restaurants and cafeterias must pass regular inspections for cleanliness and adherence to food-safety rules, yet some manage to break the rules and stay in business. When dining out, be observant. If a restaurant floor or table appears dirty or if the bathroom is grimy, chances are that the staff is lax about food-safety rules in the kitchen, too. Choose another place to eat. Once you have ordered, if a food such as meatloaf and gravy, which should be piping hot, arrives at the table lukewarm, send it back and order something else. Likewise, if a dish such as shrimp cocktail or chicken salad, which should be chilled, arrives at room temperature, send it back. You’ll be protecting yourself and doing restaurant owners a favor by alerting them to a problem.

Question 98

With or without their awareness, most people in this country consume foods that contain products of this. The direct, intentional manipulation of the genetic material of living things in order to obtain some desirable inheritable trait not present in the original organism. Three areas of bioengineering are biological, agricultural, and biomedical engineering. Also called genetic engineering.

Answer 98

bioengineering

Question 99

Popular term referring to an organism produced by bioengineering Ubiquitous food additives, such as soy lecithin and high-fructose corn syrup, are made from these genetically engineered plant materials and enter the human food supply in processed foods. Other examples: apples, papayas, potatoes, and summer squash, are consumed directly. Some consumers recoil from the idea of eating these products, and whole countries have banned such foods outright. Some objections are based on credible ideas, but most others arise from emotional fears, distrust of technology, and misinformation. This Controversy sorts some scientific facts from fiction, starting with definitions of biotechnology terms.

Answer 99

genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

Question 100

The science of manipulating biological systems or organisms to modify their products or components or create new products; biotechnology includes recombinant DNA technology and traditional and accelerated selective breeding techniques.

Answer 100

biotechnology

Question 101

An individual created asexually from a single ancestor, such as a plant grown from a single stem cell; a group of genetically identical individuals descended from a single common ancestor, such as a colony of bacteria arising from a single bacterial cell; in genetics, a replica of a segment of DNA, such as a gene, produced by bioengineering.

Answer 101

clone

Question 102

A method of bioengineering that employs CRISPR technology to alter an organism by adding, removing, or substituting molecules or sequences, or activating genes within a DNA strand. The acronym CRISPR refers to a particular DNA sequence employed in the method.

Answer 102

gene editing

Question 103

The unintended breeding of a domestic crop with a related wild species.

Answer 103

outcrossing

Question 104

Substances produced within plant tissues that kill or repel attacking organisms.

Answer 104

plant pesticides

Question 105

A technique of bio-engineering whereby scientists directly manipulate the genes of living things; includes methods of removing genes, doubling genes, introducing foreign genes, and changing gene positions to influence the growth and development of organisms.

Answer 105

recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology

Question 106

A technique of genetic modification whereby organisms are chosen for reproduction based on their desirability for human purposes, such as high growth rate, high food yield, or disease resistance, with the intention of retaining or enhancing these characteristics in their offspring.

Answer 106

selective breeding

Question 107

An undifferentiated cell that can mature into any of a number of specialized cell types. A stem cell of bone marrow may mature into one of many kinds of blood cells, for example.

Answer 107

stem cell

Question 108

An organism resulting from the growth of an embryonic, stem, or germ cell into which a new gene has been inserted.

Answer 108

transgenic organism

Question 109

Selective Breeding:
Today, accelerated selective breeding techniques involve hundreds of thousands of cross-bred seeds planted on vast acreages. To develop crops with desired traits, DNA data from successful seedlings are analyzed by computer. Seedlings with the right genes are grown to maturity and reproduced to yield new breeds in a relatively short time. Some unusually colorful carrots, including the purple, light yellow, or deep red varieties now seen in some specialty grocery stores, are products of this kind of selective breeding. Selective breeding must stay within the boundaries of a species—a carrot, for example, cannot be crossed with a mosquito. Recombinant DNA technology, however, knows no such limits.

Question 110

Recombinant DNA Technology:

With economy, speed, and precision, rDNA technology can change one or more characteristics of a living thing. The genes for a desirable trait in one organism are transferred directly into another organism’s DNA. With advancements in gene editing, scientists can now alter molecules within a single gene’s DNA strand for increasingly precise results.

Question 111

Research in bioengineering is currently directed at creating:

Answer 111

Crops and animals with added desired traits, such as altered nutrient composition, extended shelf life, freedom from allergy-causing constituents, or resistance to diseases or pests.

Crops that survive harsh conditions, such as heavily polluted or salty soils or droughts.

Microorganisms that produce needed substances, such as pharmaceuticals, hydrocarbon fuels, or other products that are absent or limited in nature.

New diagnostic and therapeutic tools to detect and treat diseases.

Question 112

Obtaining Desired Traits:

Answer 112

Using rDNA technology, scientists can confer useful traits, such as disease resistance, on food crops. To make a disease-resistant potato plant, for example, the process begins with the DNA of an immature cell, known as a stem cell, from the “eye” of a potato. Into that stem cell scientists insert a gene snipped from the DNA of a virus that attacks potato plants (enzymes do the snipping). This gene codes for a harmless viral protein, not the infective part.

The newly created stem cell is then stimulated to replicate itself, creating clone cells—exact genetic replicas of the modified cell. With time, what was once a single cell grows into a transgenic organism—in this case, a potato plant that makes a piece of viral protein in each of its cells. The presence of the viral protein stimulates the potato plant to develop resistance against an attack from the real wild virus in the potato field.

Plants make likely candidates for bioengineering because a single plant cell can often be coaxed into producing an entire new plant. Animals can also be genetically modified, however. Under development is a line of goats that, thanks to a spider’s gene, express spider silk protein in their milk. Once processed, the stronger-than-steel silk fiber can be used to make artificial ligaments and bulletproof vests.

Question 113

Suppressing Unwanted Traits:

This rDNA technology can also remove an unwanted protein from a plant by silencing the genes responsible for its creation. For example, scientists have created a safer peanut by silencing the genes for proteins that commonly cause allergic reactions. Likewise, a GE potato can be made into safer potato chips and French fries because it is engineered to have less of an amino acid that forms a carcinogenic toxin during frying. Apples that stay white after slicing instead of turning brown are available in markets; gluten-free wheat may be next.

Question 114

RICE:
Rice leads the way in a genomic revolution of the world’s food supply. A rice (called Golden Rice) provides up to 35 micrograms of absorbable beta-carotene per gram of rice; white rice provides none. Rice with white rice. Rice is an excellent vehicle for delivering vitamin A to areas of the world where rice is a staple food: everyone there eats rice, often several times a day. In comparison, carrots, famously rich in beta-carotene, are not a preferred food in those places. A single bowlful (about a cup and a half) of Golden Rice provides about 60 percent of a child’s vitamin A need, a significant contribution in the fight against deficiency diseases and childhood blindness worldwide.

Uncertainty fostered by anti-GMO activists has cast doubt about the safety of Golden Rice around the world. Twenty years after its development, few countries are growing it. Meanwhile, with each passing year, vitamin A deficiency harms hundreds of thousands of children worldwide.

Other GMO rice varieties, some offering supplemental iron and folate, could relieve much iron-deficiency anemia and folate deficiency around the world. Still others may resist drought, floods, or insects and thus provide more food for hungry populations. Not just rice but worldwide staples like cassava roots or potatoes can be “biofortified” with minerals, vitamins, fatty acids, or promising phytochemicals. In the case of cassava, it can also be made safer by reducing its concentration of naturally occurring toxins.

Question 115

Molecules from Microbes:

The genes of microorganisms have been altered to make pharmaceutical and industrial products. For example, a transgenic bacterial factory now mass-produces the hormone insulin used by people with diabetes. Another bacterium received a bovine gene to make the enzyme rennin, necessary in cheese production. (Historically, rennin was harvested from the stomachs of calves, an expensive process.)

Question 116

Greater Crop Yields:

Most of today’s genetically engineered crops are of two types: herbicide-resistant and insect-resistant, both used to improve yields and protect farmed land. Herbicide-resistant crops, for example, offer weed control with less soil tillage by allowing farmers to spray whole fields, not just weeds, with glyphosate-based herbicides (pronounced gly-FOSS-ate). The weeds die, their roots hold soil in place between the rows, and the crops grow normally. After years of such spraying, however, some weeds have developed vigorous resistance to glyphosate. Weeds grow large and spread fast despite repeated sprayings, forcing many farmers to return to old tillage methods to control them and thereby exposing vast quantities of farm topsoil to wind and water erosion.

As for insect-resistant crops, GMOs make what the EPA calls plant pesticides—pesticides made by the plant tissues themselves. For example, a type of feed corn produces a pesticide that kills a common corn-destroying worm, thereby greatly increasing yields per acre of farmland.

In areas where people cannot afford to lose a single morsel of food and where plant diseases and insects can claim up to 80 percent of a season’s yield, genetically engineered plants can save whole crops, delivering relief to millions of chronically hungry people.

Question 117

A Fast Growing Fish:

The FDA recently approved a genetically altered farm-raised salmon that received genes from two other fish species. The added genes code for a hormone that stimulates faster than normal growth in the new salmon, cutting production time, as illustrated in Figure C12–5. After extensive scientific review, the FDA concluded that the salmon is as safe to eat as other fish, and that its new DNA and its growth hormone are also safe both for consumers and the fish itself.

To protect natural systems, the FDA set stringent rules requiring insulated, closed, inland environments for raising the new salmon. Containment is crucial, because if they escape, the larger bioengineered salmon could have a survival advantage over wild species.

Question 118

Concerns about GMOs:

Consumers rightly want to know about any potential risks from bioengineering. The FDA, too, asks whether genetically altered foods differ substantially from other foods in their nutrient contents or safety.

Nutrient Composition:

Except for intentional variation created through bioengineering, the nutrient composition of genetically modified foods is identical to that of traditional foods. From the body’s point of view, Golden Rice is the same as plain rice, plus a beta-carotene supplement. GMOs may contribute to overdoses of nutrients or phytochemicals, but they pose no unusual threat of deficiencies.

Accidental Ingestion of Drugs from Foods:

Genetically modified corn, soybeans, rice, and other food crops that make human and animal drugs and industrial proteins must be grown indoors in selected locations. Their containment areas, however, often border on farms where conventional or organic food crops are grown. Critics fear that DNA from drug-producing GMOs might contaminate the food supply by cross-pollination, despite USDA oversight. Disasters such as tornadoes, floods, or other events could carry the pollen long distances, thereby inadvertently introducing the man-made genes into ordinary farm crops, in which they would not be detected and from which they could not be retrieved.

Pesticide Residues:

Industry scientists contend that bioengineering could virtually end problems associated with pesticide use on foods. The consequences of human error can be eliminated, they say, when introduced genes determine not only the nature but also the quantity of pesticide produced. Critics counter that although GMOs may be protected from one or two common pests that may or may not be present on a particular field, farmers must still spray insecticides to kill other pests that are devouring their crops. Also, still more worrisome, constant exposure is inducing crop-destroying insects to develop resistance to natural plant pesticides.

Pesticides that are sprayed onto crops can be largely removed from food by washing or peeling produce, but consumers cannot remove pesticides that form within the tissues of a genetically modified fruit or vegetable. Still, plant pesticides are highly unlikely to cause health problems because they are made of peptide chains (small protein strands) that human digestive enzymes readily denature. Plant pesticides, like other pesticide residues, are regulated and approved by the FDA.

Unintended Health Effects:

The possibility exists that GMOs may have unintended and therefore unpredictable effects on human health. A lesson comes from an unexpected negative effect of selective breeding. Over many years, celery growers had crossed their most attractive celery plants because consumers paid a premium for good-looking celery. Unknown to the growers, however, the most beautiful celery contained a great deal of a natural plant pesticide, and its concentration increased with each breeding cycle. Farm and grocery workers who handled the celery began suffering from serious skin rashes until the problem was finally traced to high levels of the natural pesticide in the beautiful plants.

Another example (this time an unintended benefit of bioengineering) involves a carcinogenic fungus that sometimes grows on corn. Upon producing a strain of corn that carried a plant pesticide to control worm damage and then observing this corn for several generations, scientists discovered that the crop suffered far fewer attacks by the dangerous fungus. It turns out that the worms spread the fungus as they burrowed into cobs of ordinary corn, but the plant pesticide in the genetically engineered corn killed the worms and stopped the fungus from spreading.

Environmental Effects:

Between 1996 and 2018, farming with genetically engineered crops reduced the use of insecticides by almost 2 billion pounds of active ingredients worldwide. At the same time, the use of glyphosate herbicides that GMOs resist, has greatly increased, making it unnecessary to use more highly toxic and persistent herbicides in the fields. Also, herbicide-resistant crops require far less plowing to kill weeds and so minimize soil erosion (more about soil conservation in Controversy 15).

The possibility of outcrossing, the accidental cross-pollination of plant pesticide crops with related wild weeds remains a concern. If a weed inherits a pest-resistant trait from a neighboring field of genetically engineered crops, it gains an enormous survival advantage over other, possibly important, wild species and crowds them out.

Loss of species is another serious threat. By propagating only a few crop varieties worldwide, humankind becomes vulnerable to serious losses in a changing environment. Species that teeter on the brink of extinction today may hold critical genetic traits that could help food crops to survive in harsher future conditions.

Concerns for wildlife also exist. In the laboratory, monarch butterfly larvae die when fed pollen from pesticide-producing corn. In real life, wild butterflies do not seem to consume enough toxic corn pollen for populations to be harmed. The new technology may even protect some percentage of the dwindling monarchs and other harmless or beneficial insects that die when they feed on conventionally sprayed fields.

Ethical Arguments about Bioengineering:

In the end, consumer acceptance determines the applications of genetic engineering. Some people fear that by tampering with the basic blueprint of life, bioengineering will sooner or later unleash mayhem into the defenseless world. No degree of risk is justified, they say, because although it raises profits for biotechnology companies and farmers, its products provide little direct benefit to consumers. Others object to bioengineering on religious grounds, holding that genetic decisions are best left to nature or a higher power.