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chapter 14 Flashcards

1
Q

meiosis

A

results in 4 haploid cells

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2
Q

1st step in meiosis

A

synthesize DNA, you are making a copy in a 4n state; you are only copying it once

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3
Q

2nd step of meiosis:

A

meiosis I, that is going to give us 2 cells

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4
Q

prophase I

A

you are going to create sister chromatids still in a 4n state, you’re also going to have crossing over begin

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5
Q

metaphase I

A

the chromatids and sister chromatids are going to line up next to each other horizontal, the centromere is where they are going to have the connection to spindle fibers

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6
Q

anaphase I

A

the spindles are pulling apart the 2 different chromosomes from each other (2 sister chromatids are going one way, and the others the opposite)

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7
Q

telophase l

A

cleavage furrow occurs and our chromosomes are going to be separate

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8
Q

meiosis l vs ll

A

meiosis l starts w/ one diploid cell, ends w two identical diploid cells (somatic), meiosis ll starts w one diploid cell, ends w four different haploid cells (gametes)

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9
Q

male gametes

A

have to produce flagellum; specialized mitochondria structure changes and becomes a fuel generating for the flagellum) changing the cellular structure after meiosis happens

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10
Q

female gametes

A

one of the 4 are going to have majority of the cytoplasm (polar bodies and egg/ovum) during meiosis you have asymmmetrical division

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11
Q

asymmetrical division

A

giving more resources to one cell than the other, clevage furrow didn’t occur in the middle

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12
Q

pleocytosis

A

abnormal raise in cell count (such as WBC)

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13
Q

down syndrome

A

caused by trisomy 21, happens when there are 3 chromosomes in your 21st pair, results of nondisjunction (1 homologous pair doesn’t separate)

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14
Q

dihybrid cross

A

2 traits on 2 separate chromosomes (9:3:3:1 phenotype)

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15
Q

monohybrid

A

2 heterozygote, 3:1 phenotype, 1:2:1 genotype

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16
Q

AaBB x AaBB

A

3:1 phenotype, 1:2:1 genotype

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17
Q

epistasis

A

interaction between nonallelic genes at 2 or more loci resulting in one gene masking the phenotype expression of another gene

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18
Q

human somatic cells are

A

diploid (2 sets of chromosomes, 1 from each parent, each homologous pair contains the same genes in the same loci (location)

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19
Q

gametes are

A

haploid (ovaries/ testes > meiosis > haploid gametes (n=23) > fertilization > diploid zygote (2n=46) > mitosis

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20
Q

crossing over

A

(during prophase I) results in the recombination of genes

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21
Q

pedigrees

A

used to deduce the possible genotype of individuals and predict future offspring (probability)

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22
Q

mendel and peas

A

input: traits combined
output: mendels laws

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23
Q

complete dominance

A

heterozygous condition is disregarded as the dominant completely masks the recessive allele

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24
Q

codominance

A

the gene pair in a heterozygote are fully expressed resulting in a phenotype that is neither dominant or recessive (spotted)

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25
incomplete dominance
heterozygote condition in which both alleles of a gene are expressed (mix)
26
pleitrophy
one gene affects multiple phenotype characters
27
multiplication rule
states that the probability that 2 or more independent events will occur together is the product of the individual probabilities (and)
28
addition rule
states that the probability that any 1 of 2 more exclusive events will occur is calculated by adding together their individual probability (or)
29
lethal allele combos are
if any allele combination is lethal, it is not seen in the genotypes of the offspring
30
epistatic
gene doing masking
31
hypostatic
gene being masked
32
polygenic traits
multiple genes work together to control phenotypes
33
sex linked traits
few genes on Y linked traits involved in more fertility, genes on X chromosome, same as other chromosomes for female, dominant in males (colorblind, hemophilia)
34
how are multiple alleles different from polygenic traits?
a single gene can have multiple alleles and polygenic traits refers to a single trait which is controlled by multiple genes (each with multiple alleles
35
chromosome variation
alleles are found on homologous chromosomes
36
law of segregation
states that genes have alternative forms of alleles. in a diploid 2 alleles of a gene separate during meiosis and gamete formation; every organism inherits 1 allele from each parent
37
law of independent assortment
states that the pair of alleles for a given gene segregates into gametes independently of the pair of alleles for any other genes, in a cross between dihybrids the offspring have 4 phenotypes (9:3:31)
38
XX and XY chromosomes
males are heterogamic sex, females are the homogamic sex (male determines the sex of the offspring), sex chromosomes line up together during meiosis
39
linked genes
located close on the same chromosome and usually staying together during recombination and crossing over, usually inherited together
40
unlinked genes
follow mendals law of independent assortment inheritance of 1 doesn't depend on the other, far apart on the same
41
recombination of crossing over
frequency of recombination between 2 genes is proportional to distance, % recombiants are used to calculate map distance
42
linkage maps
recombination =map distance in antiMorgans, give location of genes in linkage groups (group of linked genes), linkage group (if enough genes are included will show number of chromosomes
43
haploid
N
44
diploid
2N
45
triploid
3N
46
Tetraploid
4N
47
deletion
removes a chromosomal segment
48
duplication
repeats a chromosomal segment
49
inversion
reverses a chromosomal segment
50
translocation
moves a segment from 1 chromosome to a nonhomologous chromosome
51
cytoplasmic inheritance
genes found on structures in the cytoplasm, mitochondria (human 37 genes) and chrloroplasts (mostly inherited through egg)
52
recombination frequency; test cross
of recombiant progeny/ total progeny x 100%, linked is 50% and unlinked is 50% (genes on same chromosome)
53
imprinting
children follow characteristics of their parents after birth
54
double test cross
to take a fully dominant and fully recessive when only their phenotype looks like their parent, if we don't get any recombiance then they are fully linked
55
sex determination
region y (set) gene encodes a transcription factor that impacts the expression of other genes and induces the development of testes (if sry is absent then female development will take place)
56
nucleic acids
dna and rna, nucleotides are monomers
57
nucleic acid polymer
covalent bond formed between phosphate group and pentode sugar
58
dna has direction
phosphate is bound to the 5th carbon of the ribose sugar, hydroxyl group at 3rd carbon can covalently bond to phosphate over another nucleotide
59
dna polymerase
adds new nucleotide in 5>3 direction, covalent bond is formed when high energy phosphates are removed from dNTP
60
DNA replication, semi conservative model
starts with 2 parent strands, ends with 2 daughter strands, free nucleotides are added to complementary dna nucleotides to form a new daughter strand
61
dna
deoxyribose pentose sugar, double stranded (A,T) (C,G)
62
adenine and thymine are
double bonded by hydrogen bonds
63
cytosine and guanine are
triple bonded by hydrogen bonds
64
rna
ribose pentose sugar, single stranded (A,U) (C,G)
65
origins of replication
dna pol III starts to synthesize leading strand, continuous elongation 5>3 direction
66
helicase
unwinds parental double helix at replication forks
67
single strand binding protein
binds to and stabilizes single stranded dna until it is used as a template
68
topoismerase
relieves overwinding strain ahead of replication forks by breaking, swirling and rejoining dna strands
69
primase
synthesized rna primer at 5 end of leading strand, at 5 end of each okazaki fragment of lagging strand
70
dna pol lll
using parental dna as a template, synthesizes new dna strand nucleotide to an RNA primer on presenting DNA
71
dna pol I
removes dna nucleotides to primer from 5 end and replaces them with dna nucleotide
72
dna ligase
joins okazaki fragments of lagging strand; on leading strand joins 3 end of dna that replaces primer to the rest of leading strand dna
73
telomerase
enzyme w protein and rna component, bind to 3 flanking end of telomerase that is complementary to telomerase rna; bases are added using rna as template, telomerase relocates, 2nd step is repeated; 15-22 rna nucleotides compliment G-rich Dna overhangs; dna polymerase complements the lagging strand, extends the 3 inch strand of the chromosome)
74
replication at ends of chromosomes
ends of chromosomes have a 3 overhang due to removal of primer after dna replication, causes end of chromosomes to shorten after each cycle of replication (linear dna, unwinding, primer removed, gap left)
75
polymerase chain reaction
(dna rep in vitro) denaturing, annealing, extension
76
denaturing
temp is increased to separate dna strands
77
annealing
temp is decreased to allow primers to base pair to complementary dna template
78
extension
polymerase extends primer to form nascent dna strand
79
asexual reproduction
a single parent produces genetically identical offspring by mitosis
80
sexual reproduction
combines genes from 2 parents, leading to genetically diverse offspring
81
fertilization
ovaries and testes produce haploid gametes by meiosis, when egg and sperm unite form (2n=46) single cell zygote develops into a multicellular organism by mitosis
82
sister chromatid cohesion and crossing over allows...
chiasmata to hold homologous together until anaphase 1. cohesions are cleaves along the arms at the centromere in anaphase 2, release sister chromatids
83
genetic variation
raw material for evolution by natural selection mutations are the original source for diversity
84
types of genetic variation
independent assortment(of chromosomes during meiosis 1), crossing over(during meiosis 1) random fertilization (of cells by sperm)
85
sickle cell
homozygotes have sickle cell disease but heterozygote shave advantage, 1 copy reduces frequency and severity of malaria attacks
86
lethal vs nonlethal
lethal alleles are eliminated if affected ppl die before reproduction
87
amniocentesis and chronic villus sample
can indicate if genetic disorder will be present in a fetus
88
multifactoral characters
polygenic characters that are influenced by the environment
89
chromosome theory of inheritance
genes are located on chromosomes and the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis accounts for mendels laws
90
barr body
inactivated X chromosome
91
dihybrid test cross
yields parental types with the same combination of traits as those in the P generation, parents and recombinant types with traits not seen in either parent
92
anueploidy
abnormal chromosome #, can result from non junction during meiosis, when a normal gamete unites with one containing 2 or no copies of a chromosome, the resulting zygote and its descendant cells either have 1 extra copy of that chromosome
93
inheritance of traits
controlled by the genes present in mitochondria and plastids depends solely on the maternal parent because the zygotes cytoplasm comes from the egg
94
meselon and stahl expirament
showed that DNA replication is semi conservative, the parental model unwinds and each strand serves as a template for the synthesis of a new strand
95
double helix
found by watson and crick; 2 antiparallel sugar phosphate chains wound around nitrogenous bases
96
dna polymerases
proofread new dna, replaced incorrect nucleotides
97
mismatched repair
enzymes correct errors that persist
98
nucleotide excision repair
process by which nucleases cut out and other enzymes replace damaged stretched of dna
99
telomere
repetitive sequences at the ends of linear dna molecules, postponed the erosion of genes, catalyze the lengthening of telomeres in germ cells
100
chromatid
makes up a eukaryotic chromosome (composed of dna, histones, and other proteins)
101
nucleosomes
histomes binded to each other, most basic units of dna packing
102
histones
tails extend outward from each bead like nucleosome core. additional cooling and folding lead to the highly condensed chromatin of the metaphase chromosome

Biology (7 decks)

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