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Biology Year 2 > Chapter 15 - Nervous Coordination > Flashcards

Chapter 15 - Nervous Coordination Flashcards

1
Q

What are the characteristics of nervous communication as opposed to the hormonal system

A

Fast
Short lived
Localised

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2
Q

Where is the central nervous system

A

Brain and spinal cord

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3
Q

What is meant by the peripheral nervous system

A

All neurones other than central nervous system

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4
Q

What is meant by the semantic nervous system

A

Conscious control

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5
Q

What is meant by autonomic nervous system

A

Unconscious body activity

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6
Q

What is meant by parasympathetic nervous system

A

Slows things down

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7
Q

What is meant by sympathetic nervous system

A

Speeds things up

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8
Q

Write the order that an impulse passes through

A 
Stimulus
Receptor
Sensory neurone
Relay neurone (CNS)
Motor neurone
Effector 
Response
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9
Q

Draw and label the system an impulse passes through

A

In folder

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10
Q

What are the characteristics of a receptor

A
  • It is specific to one type of stimulus
  • It is a cell or protein on the surface of a cell
  • It transforms a stimulus into an electrical nerve impulse
  • Connected to dendrites
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11
Q

What is a sensory neurone made up of

A

A single long sense on

A single short axon

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12
Q

What are the characteristics of a relay neurone

A

It’s within the CNS

Has many short dendrites and axons

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13
Q

Where is a synapse found

A

Between sensory neurone and relay neurone, and relay neurone and motor neurone

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14
Q

What are the characteristics of a motor neurone

A

Many short dendrites
Single long axon
Ends with a neuromuscular junction

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15
Q

What is an effector

A

A muscle or gland that expresses the response

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16
Q

What allows a resting potential to be maintained

A

The sodium-potassium pump

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17
Q

What does the sodium potassium pump do at resting potential

A

Active transport of 3 sodium ions out of neurone and 2 potassium ions in, using ATP

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18
Q

Describe the voltage gated sodium ions channels at resting potential

A

It’s closed so that the membrane is not permeable to sodium ions

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19
Q

Describe the potassium ions channel at resting potential

A

Open so some potassium ions diffuse out, down the electrochemical gradient

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20
Q

In summary, what happens at resting potential

A
  • Sodium-potassium pump allows resting potential to be maintained
  • Active transport of sodium ions out and potassium ions in
  • Some potassium ions diffuse out via potassium ions channels
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21
Q

What happens during generator potential

A
  • A weak stimulus causes some sodium ion channels to open and some sodium ions diffuse in
  • This does not reach threshold and so sodium-potassium pump restores resting potential
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22
Q

What happens when generator potential reaches threshold

A
  • Many voltage gated sodium ion channels open
  • Sodium ions diffuse into axon
  • Positive feedback occurs
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23
Q

What happens during depolarisation

A
  • Sodium ion channels open

- Sodium ions diffuse in

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24
Q

What happens during repolarisation

A
  • Potassium ion channels open
  • Potassium ions diffuse out
  • Voltage gated sodium ion channels close
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25
When does hyperpolarisation occur
- When membrane potential is more negative than resting potential
26
What happens during hyperpolarisation
Sodium ion channels slow to close
27
What is meant by the all or nothing law
- If a generator potential reaches threshold - Triggers an action potential - All action potentials are same size - A strong stimulus generates more frequent action potential
28
What is meant by the refractory period
- Made up of the phases after depolarisation (repolarisation and hyperpolarisation) - Another action potential can’t be started - Makes action potentials discrete (they don’t overlap) and uni-directional (one-way)
29
What causes the refractory period and therefore means that the action potential is uni-directional
- Sodium ions diffuse along the membrane - Ahead of an action Potential the neurone is in resting potential - Sodium ions trigger threshold - Action potential moves along as a wave on depolarisation - Means that repolarisation and hyperpolarisation must occur to return back to resting potential
31
What is myelin sheath
- Made of Schwann cells - Is am electrical insulator - So prevents movement of ions in or out of the neurone and therefore prevents depolarisation
32
What are nodes of ranvier
- Gaps between myelin sheath (diagram in folder if needed) - Have lots of sodium and potassium ion channels - Depolarisation can only happen at nodes
33
How does saltatory conduction occur
- Due to areas of myelination - An action potential jumps between nodes of ranvier - Speeding up the transmission of nerve impulses - Cytoplasm conducts enough charge to depolarise the next node
34
How can temperature increase the speed of an action potential
- Higher temperature up to 40C - Molecules diffuse faster due to more kinetic energy - Therefore faster depolarisation and movement of action potential
35
How does the diameters of axons impact the speed of an action potential
- Greater diameter the faster the speed of action potential | - Due to more surface area for ion movement
36
What is a synapse
A junction between neurones where there is a chemical transition by neurotransmitters
37
What are the 2 types of neurontransmitter
Acetylcholine (ach) | Noradrenaline (nor)
38
What are the 4 adaptations that increase the speed of an action potential
Myelination Saltatory conduction Temperature Diameter of axons
39
What are synapses called when the neurones release acetylcholine (ach)
Cholinergic synapses
40
What are synapses called when the neurones release noradrenaline (nor)
Adrenergenic synapses
41
What is a synaptic cleft
The gap between 2 neurones
42
What is the presynaptic neurone
The neurone that carries the impulse to the synapse
43
Explain the process of how an impulse crosses a synapse
- Action potential arrives at pre-synaptic knob - Voltage gated ion channels open to allow calcium ions to diffuse in - Vesicles full of neurotransmitter fuse with the pre-synaptic membrane - Neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft - Neurotransmitter binds with receptors on post-synaptic membrane - some sodium ion channels on the post-synaptic membrane open and sodium ions diffuse in off threshold is reached - Voltage gated sodium ion channels open - Action potential is triggered in post synaptic membrane - Enzymes specific to neurotransmitter breaks it down and stops the response - Products are re-absorbed into the post-synaptic knob and recycled
44
What makes synapses uni-directional
- Only receptors on post-synaptic membrane - Neurotransmitter always released from pre-synaptic knob so diffuses from high to low concentration across synaptic cleft
45
What is meant by synaptic divergence
When one pre-synaptic neurone joins many post-synaptic neurones to spread the action potential to more than one part of the body
46
What is meant by synaptic convergence
When many pre-synaptic neurones join a single neurone in order to amplify the signal
47
What is spatial semmation
When neurotransmitter from multiple neurones combine to trigger an action potential in a post synaptic neurone (synaptic convergence) Needed because a weak stimulus may only create a few action potentials
48
What is temporal semmation
When a stronger stimulus causes more frequent action potentials, releasing more neurotransmitter that add up to trigger an action potential in the post-synaptic membrane Needed because a single action potential won’t always cause an action potential
49
What is a neuromuscular junction
A synapse between a motor neurone and a muscle fibre
50
What are some difference of neuromuscular junctions to normal synapses
- More receptors on post-synaptic membrane | - So an action potential is always generated in the post-synaptic membrane
51
Why do muscles act in antagonistic pairs
- Muscles can only pull | - Having pairs allows them to move a limb in both directions
52
What do ligaments and tendons do
Attach bones to bones | Tendons attach bones to muscles (tender)
53
What are some characteristics of skeletal/voluntary muscle
- Lots of mitochondria - Long cylindrical cells called muscle fibres - Muscle fibres are multinucleate (have many nuclei) - Muscle fibres can rain long organelles called myofibrils - Myofibrils constrain myofilaments called actin and myosin
54
What is a unit of muscle called
A sarcomere
55
What are z lines
The edges of a sarcomere
56
What is an M-line
The centre of a sarcomere
57
How is myosin respresented
Thick | Dark on an electron-micrograph
58
How is actin represented
Thin | Light colour in electron micrograph
59
What is the A-band
All of myosin including overlapping actin
60
What is the H-zone
Unoverlapped myosin
61
What is the I-band
Actin only with no overlapping myosin
62
Describe the sliding filament theory of a relaxed muscle
- Actin-myosin bonding site is blocked by tropomyosin - Tropomyosin is a protein that’s only role is this - Preventing an actinomyosin bridge being formed
63
Describe the sliding filament theory of muscle contraction
- Calcium ions released by an action potential cause tropomyosin to move out the bonding site - Allows actinomyosin bridge to form - Calcium ions also activate ATPase so ATP can be broken down - ATP can be used to change shape/angle of myosin heads to enable a power stroke (this continues aslong as binding site is open from calcium) - ATP also used to detach myosin head from binding site, cause a recovery stroke (return myosin head to starting position) and re-absorb calcium ions into sarcoplasmic reticulum by active transport
64
What happens to a sarcomere, I-band, H-zone and A-band during contraction
First 3 shorten A-band stays the same It H-zone disappears there is full contraction
65
What is the order of the fastest to slowest way for muscles to create ATP
1) Phosphocreatine 2) Anaerobic respiration 3) Aerobic respiration
66
Describe how phosphocreatine causes muscle contraction and explain the characteristics of this
- Phosphate group from PCr is added to ADP for ATP - Short and simple reaction (fastest way to make ATP) - PCr stores are used up quickly as it is used for high intensity exercises for a short duration - It is anaerobic - It is alactic (doesn’t produce lactic acid)
67
Describe how anaerobic respiration creates ATP and the characteristics of this
- 2 ATP made by glycolysis - Pyruvate and lactate causes muscle fatigue - Short duration - High intensity
68
Describe how aerobic respiration creates ATP and characteristics of this
- Oxidative phosphorylation creates lots of ATP - It is slow and there are many reactions - There are no harmful waste products
69
List characteristics of slow and fast twitch muscle fibres
Slow - Contract slowly - Relax slowly - Low force of contraction - Resistant to fatigue - Respire aerobically (no waste products) - Have lots of mitochondria, blood vessels and myoglobin (red) - Little anaerobic respiration so low intensity and long duration Fast - All opposite
70
What is the postsynaptic neurone
The neurone that carries the impulse away from the synapse

Biology Year 2 (10 decks)

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