Chapter 19

Question 1

Helping Behaviour

Answer 1

Helping behaviour is also known as pro-social behaviour. Pro-social behaviour is that which bene ts other people and society in general.
Helping behaviour is usually voluntary, because it is intended to bene t others.

Question 2

Examples of helping behaviour

Answer 2

It includes aiding and assisting, charity, cooperation, friendship, rescuing, sacri cing, sharing, sympathy, trust, and bystander intervention. Sometimes helping behaviour can be altruistic because it involves helping others for no reward, and this might also be at a personal cost to the helper. Helping behaviour can be an automatic response to an immediate situation, or it can be deliberate and occur over time.

Question 3

3 explanations of pro social behaviour

Answer 3

Biological (Nature)
Environmental (Nurture)
nteraction between biological and environmental factors (nature and nurture)

Question 4

Biological (Nature)

Answer 4

This explanation is part of socio-biology, which sees pro-social behaviour as genetic – humans naturally assist others as a way of protecting our common gene pool.

Question 5

Environmental (Nurture)

Answer 5

This is the view that pro-social behaviour is not innate, but that it is learned during the socialisation process. It suggests that classical and operant conditioning, and social learning (also referred to as observational learning) all contribute to the development of pro-social behaviour. Children can learn pro-social behaviour by copying the pro-social behaviour
of others around them, and through being rewarded for appropriate behaviour.

Question 6

Interaction between biological and environmental factors (nature and nurture)

Answer 6

This approach suggests that although we might be born with an innate tendency to help others, exactly how we help is the product of social learning.

Question 7

4 Factors affecting helping behaviour

Answer 7

Bystander Intervention
Social Norms
Personal Characteristics of the Helper
Altruism

Question 8

Bystander intervention and effect

Answer 8

One of the most influential aspects of a situation is whether a potential helper is alone or with other people. Bystander intervention is where a person voluntarily helps someone else. The bystander effect is where a bystander is more likely to help others in an emergency when he or she is alone than when there are other bystanders around.

Question 9

Decision stage model of helping

Answer 9

The decision-stage model of helping is a model of the situational in uences on bystander intervention. It says that when confronted with a situation that might require their assistance, potential helpers go through ve stages in deciding to help. If a bystander stops at any one of these steps, he or she will not provide assistance. Most bystanders tend to stop at Stage 3, where they decide that it is not their responsibility to help

Question 10

5 Steps of Bystander Effect

Answer 10

1 Noticing the need for help
2 Deciding that it is an emergency
3 Deciding to take responsibility
4 Deciding on a way to help
5 Taking action to help.

Question 11

Explain the bystander effect with an example

Answer 11

Sometimes, for example, a bystander will look at other bystanders and see that they are taking no action. The bystander assumes that he or she is the only person who is confused about what to do. However, the other people on the scene are also making the same assumption, and therefore no help is given to the person who is genuinely in need.

Question 12

Social norms

Answer 12

A very important in uence on the development and maintenance of pro-social behaviour is social norms. A norm is a form of action or behaviour that is standardised and expected in a society: in other words, behaviour that society regards as ‘normal’. Norms are learned, and they provide a background for human social interaction.

Question 13

Social norms in relation to pro and anti social behaviour

Answer 13

Generally, it is expected in most societies that pro-social behaviour is normal, especially when there is minimal cost to the helper. Society might approve of, and even reward, examples of pro-social behaviour through recognition and acknowledgment. On the other hand, anti-social behaviour is disapproved of. In extreme cases, anti-social behaviour is punished with a jail sentence.

Question 14

Two norms that are in uential in pro-social behaviour are the

Answer 14

reciprocity principle

social responsibility norm

Question 15

Reciprocity Principle

Answer 15

The reciprocity principle is often expressed as ‘do unto others as they do unto you’, because it describes the social expectation of reciprocity between people. We feel grateful if someone does us a favour and often feel the need to do that person a favour in return. If the original favour involves a signi cant e ort, then we are likely to feel more indebted to that person.

Question 16

Social Responsibility Norm

Answer 16

The social responsibility norm is
where members of a society are expected to provide help to people who are dependent or
in need, without the expectation of favours being returned. Examples of this norm include donating money or time to charity; assisting the frail, impaired, sick and vulnerable members of society; and caring for members of our family.
However, people are only expected to help others who are genuinely in need. People who have behaved irresponsibly and are perceived to be responsible for their own problems – for example, gamblers experiencing nancial hardship – are less likely to receive help.

Question 17

Personal characteristics of the helper, explain and 4 characteristics

Answer 17

Altruism
Competence
Mood
Empathy

Question 18

Empathy definition and 3 explanations

Answer 18

Empathy is our emotional response to another person’s distress. We nd it unpleasant to see another person su ering, so we take action to help and thus alleviate the su ering. There are several di erent explanations for why empathy causes pro-social behaviour:
Arousal
Similarity
Option 3

Question 19

Similarity

Answer 19

We are more likely to feel empathy if we perceive those in need to be similar to ourselves: the greater the similarity, the stronger the feelings of empathy and arousal are likely to be. This is because the helper can more easily identify with the person in need – ‘that could be happening to me’.

Question 20

Arousal

Answer 20

Bystanders help others in distress because it relieves the unpleasant emotional feeling that comes from empathising with those who are su ering. This explanation sees bystanders assisting others for sel sh reasons rather than a genuine concern for others in distress. Helping others reduces the bystander’s unpleasant levels of arousal, as well as allowing the bystander to avoid any feelings of guilt that might result from a failure to help.

Question 21

Option 3

Answer 21

Some helpers genuinely feel sad for the victim. By helping the victim, the helper also feels better.

Question 22

Mood

Answer 22

A person’s mood has been found to in uence their propensity to behave in pro-social ways. Generally, people who are in a good mood are more likely to demonstrate pro- social behaviour than people who are in a bad mood.
Research has also found that when people are made to feel good by succeeding at a task, they are more likely to be helpful than those who have failed in a task. Similarly, people who hear good news or experience good weather are more likely to feel optimistic and positive towards others and help them.
Research has also found that when people feel bad or depressed, they are more likely to focus inwardly towards themselves rather than outwardly towards others in need.

Question 23

Competence

Answer 23

The way bystanders perceive their competence to deal with an emergency will in uence whether they will provide help. For example, a study has found that people with rst-aid training are more likely to help in emergencies than people who have no such experience.

Question 24

Altruism

Answer 24

Altruism is a unique in uence on pro-social behaviour where, for no persona gain and sometimes at great personal cost, a person helps others due to a deeply felt concern for fellow human beings.

Question 25

Non helping behaviour

Answer 25

The opposite of helping or pro-social behaviour is a reluctance to help or anti-social behaviour.

Question 26

2 Factors influencing non helping behaviour

Answer 26

Situation | Bystander

Question 27

Sitation, helping and non helping

Answer 27

If a situation is a clear-cut need for help, it If the situation is ambiguous, then help might not be forthcoming. The environmental setting can also in uence the likelihood of help being o ered to people in need: for example, people in rural settings are often more inclined to help each other than people living in densely populated urban settings. Whether the situation is an emergency or not is one relevant factor that a ects how a potential helper might react. People are less likely to help when there are many bystanders, no urgent need and when the bystander has lots of time.

Question 28

Bystander effect

Answer 28

We have seen that bystander intervention is where a person voluntarily goes to the aid of another who is in need, and the bystander e ect is where the likelihood of bystanders helping is in uenced by the number of bystanders present at the scene – the more bystanders there are, the less likely it is that one of them will provide help.

Question 29

5 Reasons why the bystander effect occurs

Answer 29

``` Diffusion of responsibility Audience inhibition Social Influence Proximity of the victim Nature of the bystander ```

Question 30

Diffusion of responsibility

Answer 30

Sometimes when there are several bystanders, they look at each other to see how they are reacting to the emergency. If nobody in the group responds to the emergency, then it is possible each bystander has experienced a di usion of responsibility. This is where the presence of others leads each bystander to feel less responsibility for helping the person in need. Each bystander believes that it is the responsibility of the other bystanders to take charge and provide help. Conversely, if you are by yourself, then the responsibility to take action is yours alone.

Question 31

Audience Inhibition

Answer 31

The presence of other bystanders or onlookers can make a potential helper feel self-conscious and thus inhibit helping behaviour. This is also known as fear of social blunders, where people are afraid that others will judge them by their actions if they make an incorrect move.

Question 32

Social influence

Answer 32

The reaction of other bystanders will in uence the likelihood of help. If the other bystanders appear unconcerned, then potential helpers might not perceive the situation to be one that warrants assistance. On the other hand, if the crowd appears concerned, then it is likely that bystanders will provide help.

Question 33

Proximity of the victim

Answer 33

The proximity of the victim to the bystander in uences the action of a potential helper. The greater the distance between the victim and the bystander, the less responsible the bystander will feel

Question 34

Nature of the bystander

Answer 34

The nature of the bystander can in uence the potential to help. This includes a range of factors including an individual’s past experience of helping behaviour, awareness of norms, level of moral development, personality, similarity to the victim, relationship to the victim, and mood at the time of the incident.

Question 35

Explain the murder of Kitty Genovese

Answer 35

The attack occurred late at night in the respectable borough of Queens in New York. Kitty was on her way home from her work as a barmaid. Her attacker struck and, initially, her screams and struggles drove him away. However, when he realised that nobody was coming to help her, he attacked again. Once more, she screamed for help and managed to escape. Again, nobody came to her aid. In the third attack, Kitty was stabbed eight more times and sexually molested.

Question 36

Why didn’t anyone call the police when they heard Kitty’s screams?

Answer 36

This question prompted Bibb Latané and John Darley (1970) to seek the answer through research on bystander intervention and the bystander effect. Their research revealed that the lack of response by Kitty’s neighbours was typical of the bystander effect, where the presence of other people actually inhibits helping behaviour. This effect occurs in a range of situations, where each bystander experiences a diffusion of responsibility if there are other bystanders present.

Question 37

LATANE AND DARLEY 1970 EXPERIMENT

Answer 37

In 1970, Latané and Darley conducted a study where participants (volunteer students) were each placed in individual cubicles connected by an intercom. Through the intercom, the students participated in discussion groups of three di erent sizes. Because the students were in separate cubicles, the researchers could observe how each individual behaved. At the start of the discussions, an accomplice of the researchers, posing as one of the students, said that he was prone to su er from seizures. Later on during the discussion, he pretended to have a seizure and called for help. The researchers found that although most students tried to get help for him, the larger the group size, the less likely it was that group members would seek help.

Question 38

1970 IV AND DV

Answer 38

IV: Group Size DV: Behaviour of participants (whether they are going to help or not)

Question 39

1970 CV

Answer 39

Difference in competence of participants.

Question 40

1970 Generalisation

Answer 40

No, as the people connected to the intercom were all students or posing as students there was a normative influence increasing the tendency to go along with the group.

Question 41

1970 Ethical issues

Answer 41

Breach of voluntary participation as the use of deception could have caused distress in the participants. Participants may have felt very uncomfortable listening to the seizure.

Question 42

LATANE AND DARLEY 1968

Answer 42

In another study, the researchers found that the bystander e ect occurs even when a person’s own safety is at risk (Latané & Darley, 1968). The researchers asked students to complete a questionnaire about the problems of city life. Not long after they had started to ll out the questionnaire, arti cial smoke began to pour into the room. Where there was only one participant in the room, at least 50 per cent of the participants reported the smoke within four minutes. However, when there were three participants in the room at one time, only one of the 24 participants reported the smoke within the rst four minutes, and only three did so within six minutes. This study showed that people might fail to act even when their own safety is at risk.

Question 43

1968 IV AND DV

Answer 43

IV: Group Size DV: Behaviour of participants (whether they are going to report the smoke or not.)

Question 44

1968 CV

Answer 44

If participants had a fear of fire they may have reacted differently.

Question 45

1968 GENERALISATION

Answer 45

No, as the participants were all students there was a normative influence increasing the tendency to go along with the group.

Question 46

1968 ETHICAL ISSUES

Answer 46

Breach of voluntary participation as the use of deception could have caused distress in the participants. Participants who had a fear of fire may have been extremely distressed due to the presence of smoke.

Question 47

Cost benefit analysis

Answer 47

The cost–benefit analysis model by Piliavin and colleagues includes both cognitive and physiological processes. It suggests that when a bystander is confronted with an emergency, he or she weighs up the costs and bene ts of providing help compared to those for not helping.

Question 48

3 stages of the cost benefit analysis

Answer 48

Physiological arousal Labelling arousal with a specific emotion Evaluating consequences of helping

Question 49

Physiological arousal

Answer 49

for example increased heart and respiratory rate – this is triggered by witnessing a victim’s distress. The greater the arousal, the more likely it is that the bystander will help.

Question 50

Labelling arousal with a specific emotion

Answer 50

In an emergency, this might be either personal distress or empathic concern. Personal distress is a feeling of anxiety and tension when someone else is in distress. Bystanders take action to make themselves, rather than victims, feel better. Empathic concern is the ability to recognise someone else’s emotional state and express appropriate concern if that state is negative.

Question 51

Evaluating consequences of helping

Answer 51

This involves working out whether the costs of helping outweigh the bene ts. Costs usually involve time and/or effort the greater these costs, the less likely it is that a bystander will help. A helper must weigh up the personal cost and the empathy cost of either helping or failing to help.

Question 52

3 examples of cost benefit analysis

Answer 52

More onlookers Greater need for help Victim is relative or friend

Question 53

More onlookers

Answer 53

the more onlookers, the less likely it is that a bystander will help because there is a reduced personal cost for not helping (for example, in terms of public disapproval or self-blame)

Question 54

Greater need for help

Answer 54

the greater the victim’s need for help, the greater the personal distress of not helping. For example, a child attacked by a dog is more likely to get help than a man in the street begging for money to buy cigarettes

Question 55

Relative or friend victim

Answer 55

if the victim is a relative or friend, or is perceived to be similar to the bystanders, then the bystanders are likely to help because they will experience both greater physiological arousal and more empathy costs (such as guilt for not helping).

Question 56

Bullying

Answer 56

Bullying is a form of aggressive behaviour where one person intentionally and repeatedly causes another person injury or discomfort. The victim has di culty defending him/herself and has done nothing to ‘cause’ the bullying behaviour of the other.

Question 57

Bullying abuse of power

Answer 57

Common to all types of bullying is the perception that one individual or a group of people has/have more social or physical power than another individual or group. Where bullying is perpetrated by a group it if called ‘mobbing’. The ‘powerful’ individual or group uses this perceived power to repeatedly menace and threaten others either through verbal, and/or physical harassment and coercion.

Question 58

How does the bully justify their behaviour

Answer 58

The bully/ bullies justify their behaviour on the grounds of di erences between themselves and their victim/s: for example, social class, race, ethnicity, religion, physical strength, ability, size, sexual orientation, appearance, reputation.

Question 59

4 Types of bullying and examples

Answer 59

Direct Physical - Hitting, pushing, property damage Direct Verbal - Name calling, insults, teasing Indirect/Covert - Lying, rumour spreading, social exclusion, mimicking Cyber

Question 60

Cyberbullying

Answer 60

Cyberbullying refers to the sending of hurtful or threatening messages via the internet. It also refers to the spreading of rumours or posting embarrassing photos of others via the internet. It can cause the victim to experience social problems and the feeling of being harassed, afraid, anxious, or depressed.

Question 61

effects of bullying

Answer 61

Victims of bullying are often at risk of anxiety, stress, and even suicide. They may experience loneliness, depression, panic attacks or low self-esteem. The e ects of bullying can have long-term costs for the victims and, where bullying has occurred, it is vital that it is addressed and steps taken to provide support for the victim.

Question 62

Influence of media on individuals and groups

Answer 62

Media is the mainstream form of communication in society. For us, that can include anything from newspapers, radio, magazines, television to social media or blogging. It is where we get our information and connect with the outside world on a global scale. Using new technologies, we can access this information from many di event devices. The messages and information coming from the media can have an impact on our attitudes and behaviour, whether we are aware of it or not. As we are fed more and more information through images, sounds, slogans and branding, we are incorporating what the media shows us into our knowledge of the world.

Question 63

Influence of Advertising on individuals and groups

Answer 63

Consumerism encourages the purchase of goods for the sake of having them even if they are expensive. Advertising promotes consumerism and influences what we think, our appearance, what we find attractive and how we should behave. > Advertising through media sets the standards for beauty and attractiveness. This has led to low self-esteem and eating disorders in many teenagers of both genders. > Advertising through television, magazines, social media and other media can be a powerful vehicle to distribute important health and wellbeing messages as well as education.

Question 64

3 Pros of media influence

Answer 64

Cultural and political awareness - Opportunity for people to become informed about state, national, and global issues. Social skills development - Chance to re ne intercommunication skills with friends and to learn the appropriate media communication protocols. Also a great way to remain connected to family and friends all over the world. Media literacy - Young people become adept in learning the ‘language’ of social media. - Skills in technology.

Question 65

3 Cons of media influence

Answer 65

Distraction Social isolation Privacy is at risk