Chapter 2 Flashcards
(339 cards)
1
Q
Two important aspects of homeostasis
A
1 maintaining the proper assortment and quantity of thousands of different chemicals in the body
2 monitoring the interactions of those chemicals with one another
2
Q
The chemical level of organization
A
Is the lowest most basic level of structural organization
3
Q
Water accounts for
A
2/3 of your body weight
4
Q
What are the three states of matter
A
Solid
Liquid
Gas
5
Q
Solids
A
Are compact and have a definite shape and volume
6
Q
Chemistry
A
The science of the structure and interactions of matter
7
Q
Matter
A
Anything that occupies space and has mass
8
Q
Mass
A
The amount of matter in any object
9
Q
Weight
A
The force of gravity acting on matter
10
Q
Liquids
A
Have a definite volume and assume the shape of their container
11
Q
Gasses
A
Do not have a definite shape or volume
12
Q
All forms of matter are made up of a limited number of building blocks called
A
Elements
13
Q
Element
A
A substance that cannot be split into a simpler substance by ordinary chemical means
14
Q
How many elements do scientists recognize
A
118
15
Q
How many elements occur naturally on earth
A
92
16
Q
Define Chemical symbol
A
One or two letters of the elements name in English Latin or another language
17
Q
How many elements are normally present in your body
A
26
18
Q
The major elements
A
Four elements that amount to 96% of your body’s mass
19
Q
What are the major elements found in the body
A
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
20
Q
Lesser elements in the human body account for
A
3.6 percent of body mass
21
Q
How many lesser elements are there in the human body
A
8
22
Q
What are the lesser elements in the human body
A
Calcium
Phosphorus
Potassium
Sulfur
Sodium
Chlorine
Magnesium
Iron
23
Q
Trace elements
A
14 elements that are present in tiny amounts in the body that make up about .4 percent of your body mass
24
Q
About what percentage of body mass is oxygen
A
65 percent
25
What is the significance of oxygen to the body
It is part of water and many organic molecules
It is used to generate ATP
26
What is ATP
A molecule used by cells to temporarily store chemical energy
27
What percentage of body mass is carbon
18.5 percent
28
What is the significance of carbon in the body
Forms backbone chains and rings of all organic molecules
29
What percentage of body mass is hydrogen
About 9.5 percent
30
What is the significance of hydrogen in the body
Constituent of water and most organic molecules the ionized for of hydrogen makes body fluids more acidic
31
What percentage of body mass is nitrogen
3.2 percent
32
What is the significance of nitrogen in the body
It is a component of all proteins and nucleic acids
33
What percentage of body weight is calcium
1.5 percent
34
What is the significance of calcium in the body
Contributes to hardness of bones and teeth, ionized form is needed for blood clotting, release of some hormones, contraction of muscles, and many other processes
35
What percentage of body weight is phosphorus
1 percent
36
What is the significance of phosphorus in the body
It is a component of nucleic acids and ATP, it is required for normal bone and tooth structure
37
What percentage of body mass is potassium
.35 percent
38
What is the significance of potassium in the body
Ionized form is the most plentiful cation in intracellular fluid, needed to generate action potentials
39
What percentage of body mass is sulfur
.25 percent
40
What is the significance of sulfur in the body
Component of some vitamins and many proteins
41
What percentage of body mass is sodium
.2 percent
42
What is the significance of sodium in the body
Ionized form is the most plentiful cation in ECF, essential for maintaining water balance, needed to generate action potentials.
43
What percentage of body mass is chlorine
.2 percent
44
What is the significance of chlorine in the body
Ionized form is the most plentiful anion in ECF, essential for maintaining water balance
45
What percentage of body mass is magnesium
.1 percent
46
What is the significance of magnesium in the body
Ionized form is needed for action of many enzymes
47
What percentage of body mass is iron
.005 percent
48
What is the significance of iron in the body
Ionized forms are part of hemoglobin and some enzymes
49
What are the trace elements in the body
Aluminum
Boron
Chromium
Cobalt
Copper
Fluorine
Iodine
Manganese
Molybdenum
Selenium
Silicon
Tin
Vanadium
Zinc
50
All matter is made up of
Atoms
51
Define atom
The smallest units of matter that retain the properties and characteristics of an element
52
Hydrogen atoms have a diameter of
Less than one nanometer
53
Atoms are composed of
Subatomic particles
54
What are the three important subatomic particles
Protons
Neutrons
Electrons
55
Define atomic nucleus
The dense central core of an atom
56
What is the atomic nucleus made of and what are their associated charges
Protons positive charge
Neutrons no charge
57
Where are the negatively charged electrons located
In a negatively charged cloud surrounding the nucleus
58
Electrons do not orbit
In a fixed path
59
Electron shells
Regions surrounding the nucleus of an atom which is the general place where electrons would be predictably found
60
The first electron shell never holds more than
2 electrons
61
The second electron shell holds up to
8 electrons
62
The third electron shell can hold up to
18 electrons
63
The electron shells fill with electrons
In a certain order starting with the first shell
64
The element with the most electrons in the body which is also the most massive element in the body
Iodine
65
The total charge of a normal atom is zero
66
The number of protons and neutrons in an atom are always
The same
67
Atomic number
The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom
68
Atoms of different elements always have different
Atomic numbers because they have a different number of protons
69
Define mass number
The sum of an atoms protons and neutrons
70
The mass number may be different from the atomic number because
There could be a different number of neutrons than number of protons
71
Define isotope
Atoms of an element that have a different number of neutrons and therefore different mass numbers
72
Most isotopes are
Stable
73
What does it mean that most isotopes are stable
Their nuclear structures do not change over time
74
The number of electrons in an atom determine
The chemical properties of an atom
75
Since different isotopes of the same element still have the same amount of electrons
They all have the same properties
76
Define Radioactive isotopes
They are unstable their nuclei decay into a stable configuration
77
As radioisotopes decay they emit
Radiation
78
During radioactive decay isotopes often
Change into different elements
79
Define the half life of an isotope
The amount of time for half of the radioactive atoms in a sample of that isotope to decay into a more stable form
80
Radioactive isotopes can have
Harmful or helpful effects
81
The radiation caused by various isotopes can unfortunately
Can break apart molecules causing tissue damage or cancer
82
Radioisotopes are used beneficially for humans by
Using them in medical imaging to diagnose certain disorders
83
Define tracers
Radioisotopes used to follow the movement of certain substances through the body
84
Define Dalton
The standard unit for measuring the mass of atoms and their subatomic particles
85
Daltons are also known as
Atomic mass units
86
A neutron has a mass of
1.008 daltons
87
A proton has a mass of
1.007 daltons
88
What is the mass of an electron
.0005 daltons which is 2000 times smaller than neutrons or protons
89
Define atomic mass or atomic weight
The average mass of all naturally occurring isotopes of an element
90
The atomic mass is typical close to the
Mass number of the elements most abundant isotope
91
In order to maintain stability atoms have a characteristic way of
Losing gaining or sharing electrons
92
Since electrons behave the way they do they enable the atoms in the body to behave as _______ or join to form______
Electrically charged forms called ions
Complex combinations called molecules
93
If an atom gives up or gains an electron
It becomes an ion
94
Define ion
A particle that has a positive or negative charge because of the unequal number of protons and electrons
95
Define ionization
The process of giving up or gaining electrons
96
An ion of an atom is symbolized by writing
The chemical symbol followed by the number of positive or negative charges
97
Define molecule
A particle in which two or more atoms share electrons
98
Define molecular formula
An indication of the elements and the number of atoms of each element that make up a molecule
99
In H2O
One atom of oxygen shares electrons with two hydrogen atoms
100
Define compound
A substance that contains atoms of two or more different elements
101
Most atoms in the body
Are joined into compounds
102
The oxygen molecule O2 is not a compound because
It only consists of atoms of one element
103
Define free radical
An atom or group of atoms with an unpaired electron in the outermost shell
104
Having an unpaired electron makes free radicals
Unstable, highly reactive, and destructive to surrounding molecules
105
Free radicals become stable by
Giving up the unpaired electron to or taking an electron from another molecule
106
When free radicals give up or gain electrons
They may break apart important body molecules
107
Sources of free radicals include
Exposure to UV rays of sunlight
Exposure to X-rays
Ozone
Cigarette smoke
Air pollutants
Normal metabolic processes
108
Disorders and diseases associated with free radicals include
Cancer
Atherosclerosis
Alzheimer’s disease
Emphysema
Diabetes mellitus
Cataracts
Macular degeneration
Rheumatoid arthritis
109
Define Antioxidants
Substances that inactivate oxygen derived free radicals
110
Define chemical bonds
The forces that hold together atoms of a molecule
111
Define valence shell
The outer most shell of an atom
112
The number of atoms in the valence shell determines
The likelihood of that atom to form chemical bonds
113
Atoms with a full valence shell
Are chemically stable an unlikely to bond with other atoms
114
The atoms of most biologically important elements
Do not have eight electrons in their valence shell
115
What is the octet rule
Under the right conditions two or more atoms can interact in ways that produce a chemically stable arrangement of eight valence electrons for each atom
116
The octet rule explains
Why atoms behave in predictable ways
117
One atom is more likely to interact with another atom if
Doing so will leave both with eight valence electrons
118
Three types of chemical bonds
Ionic
Covalent
Hydrogen
119
Positive and negative electrons
Are attracted to one another
120
Define ionic bond
The force of attraction that holds ions with opposite charges together
121
Define cation
A positively charged ion
122
Define anion
A negatively charged ion
123
Name the common cations in the body with their symbols
Hydrogen ion H+
Sodium ion Na+
Potassium ion K+
Ammonium ion NH4+
Magnesium ion Mg^2+
Calcium ion is Ca^2+
Iron 2 ion Fe^2+
Iron 3 ion Fe^3+
124
What are the common anions in the body what are their symbols
Fluoride ion F-
Chloride ion Cl-
Iodide ion I-
Hydroxide ion OH-
Bicarbonate ion HCO3-
Oxide ion O^2-
Sulfate ion SO4^2-
Phosphate ion PO4^3-
125
In general ionic compounds exist
As solids with an orderly repeating arrangement of the ions
126
Though the number of ions can vary in an ionic bond but
The ratio is the same
127
Ionic bonds in the body are mainly found
In teeth and bones
128
Define electrolyte
An ionic compound that breaks apart into positive and negative ions
129
Most ions in the body
Are dissolved in body fluids as electrolytes
130
Why are electrolytes called electrolytes
Because their solutions can conduct an electric current
131
Define covalent bond
A bond where two or more atoms share electrons rather than gaining or losing them
132
The larger number of electron pairs that are shared in a covalent bond
The the stronger the bond
133
Most of the chemical bonds in the body are
Covalent bonds
134
The compounds formed by covalent bonds
Make up most of the body’s structures
135
A single covalent bond results
When two atoms share one electron pair
136
A double covalent bond results when
Two electron pairs are shared by two atoms
137
A triple covalent bond results when
3 electron pairs are shared by two atoms
138
In covariant bonds the number of lines between the chemical signals represent
Whether the bond is single double or triple
139
Define nonpolar covalent bond
Where two atoms share electrons equally and one atom does not attract the electrons more strongly than the other
140
The bonds between two identical atoms are always
Nonpolar covalent bonds
141
The bonds between hydrogen and carbon are always
Nonpolar covalent bonds
142
In a polar covalent bond
The sharing of electrons between two atoms is unequal because the nucleus of one atom attracts the shared electrons more strongly than the nucleus of the other atom
143
When a polar covalent bond forms
The resulting molecule has a partial negative charge near the atom that affects the electrons more strongly
144
What is electro negativity
The power to attract electrons to itself
145
In a nonpolar covalent bond at least one atom will be
Partially positive
146
What are some polar covalent bonds
Hydrogen and oxygen
Oxygen and carbon
Nitrogen and hydrogen
147
A hydrogen bond forms when
A hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge attracts the partial negative charge of neighboring electronegative atoms, most often larger oxygen or nitrogen atoms.
148
Hydrogen bonds result from a
ttraction of oppositely charged parts of molecules
149
Hydrogen bonds are
Weak compared to ionic and covalent bonds
150
Hydrogen bonds are so weak that
They cannot bind atoms into molecules
151
Hydrogen bonds establish
Important links between molecules or different parts of a large molecule
152
Define cohesion
The tendency of like particles to stick together
153
Define surface tension
A measure of the difficulty of stretching or breaking the surface of a liquid
154
The high surface tension of water is caused by
A high level of Cohesion in water which is caused by the links of hydrogen bonds
155
Waters surface tension is very high because
The atoms in the water are more attracted to one another than to the atoms in the air above the water
156
Acting collectively thousands of hydrogen bonds can
Provide considerable strength and stability and help determine the shape of large molecules
157
Both Before and after every chemical reaction
The number of atoms in each element is the same
158
A chemical reaction occurs when
New bonds form or old bonds break between atoms
159
The foundation of all chemical reactions
Interactions between valence electrons
160
Define reactants
The starting substance of a chemical reaction
161
Define products
The ending substances of a chemical reaction
162
In a chemical reaction the mass of the reactants equals
The mass of the products
163
Since during a chemical reaction the atoms become rearranged
The products have different chemical properties
164
Define metabolism
All of the chemical reactions that occur in the body
165
Each chemical reaction involves
Energy changes
166
Define energy
The capacity to do work
167
What are the two principal forms of energy
Potential and kinetic
168
What is chemical energy
A form of potential energy that is stored in the bonds of compounds and molecules
169
What is the law of conservation of energy
Although energy can neither be created or destroyed it can be converted from one form into another
170
Some of the chemical energy in the foods we eat
Are converted into kinetic energy when we do work
171
Conversion of energy from one form to another typically produces
Heat which is also used to maintain normal body temperature
172
Chemical bonds represent
Stored chemical energy
173
What is an exergonic reaction
A reaction that releases more energy than it absorbs
174
Overall a chemical reaction can either
Release energy or absorb energy
175
Define endergonic reaction
A reaction that absorbs more energy than it releases
176
Energy released from an exergonic reaction
Is often used to drive an endergonic one
177
In general, exergonic reactions occur
As nutrients are broken down
178
Energy broken down into ATP is usually used to drive
Endergonic reactions needed for the building of body structures
179
Energy in ATP is sometimes used to
Do mechanical work like contraction of muscle or moving substances into or out of cells
180
Since particles of matter have kinetic energy
They are constantly colliding with one another
181
Collisions of particles can affect the movement of
Valence electrons causing bonds to break or form
182
What is activation energy
The collision energy needed to break the chemical bonds of reactants
183
As bonds are broken and new bonds are formed
Energy is released into the surroundings
184
Two factors that can influence whether a chemical reaction will occur
Concentration
Temperature
185
How does Concentration of particles affect the potential that a reaction will occur
The more particles packed into a confined space the more likely they are to collide with one another
186
How does temperature affect the likelihood of reactions to occur
The higher the temperature the faster the particles move which means they will collide with more force and will be more likely to produce a reaction
187
Why does the body use catalysts
Normal body temperature is far too low for most of the chemical reactions needed to maintain life so I order to solve this problem the body uses catalysts to lower the activation energy required for reactions.
188
Define catalyst
A chemical compound that lowers the activation energy needed for a reaction
189
The most important catalysts in the body are
Enzymes
190
Although a catalyst does not affect the potential energy of the reactants it does
Lower the amount of energy needed to start the reaction
191
In order for a reaction to occur not only must particles collide with adequate force they must also
Collide at precise spots
192
Catalysts help reactions by
Properly orienting reactants so that they collide in the right position
193
Although a catalyst speeds up a chemical reaction
The catalyst itself remains unchanged throughout the reaction thus a single catalyst molecule can assist one chemical reaction after another
194
Define a synthesis reaction
When two or more particles combine to form new and larger molecules
195
What does synthesis mean
To put together
196
Define anabolism
All of the synthesis reactions in the body
197
Anabolic reactions are usually
Endergonic
198
Decomposition reactions
Split up larger molecules into smaller molecules or ions or atoms
199
Define catabolism
All of the decomposition reactions that occur in the body
200
Catabolic reactions are usually
Exergonic
201
In exchange reactions
Some molecules break and new molecules are formed so both decomposition and synthesis reactions are both involved in the same reaction
202
In a reversible reaction
The products can revert back to the original reactants
203
A reversible reaction is indicated by
Two half arrows pointing in opposite directions
204
Some reactions are reversible
Only under certain conditions
205
If a reaction is only reversible under certain conditions
It is written above or below the arrow to indicate what condition is necessary
206
Many of the reversible reactions in the body require
Catalysts called enzymes
207
Oxidation reduction reactions are necessary to life because
They are involved in breaking down food molecules to produce energy
208
Oxidation reduction reactions are concerned with
The transfer of electrons between atoms and molecules
209
Oxidation refers to
The loss of electrons in the process the oxidized substance releases energy
210
Reduction refers to
The gain of electrons in the process the reduced substance gains energy
211
Oxidation reduction reactions are always parallel which means
When one substance is oxidized another is reduced at the same time
212
When a food molecule is oxidized
The energy produced is used by a cell to carry out its functions
213
Most of the chemicals in the body exist as
Compounds
214
Inorganic compounds
Usually lack carbon and are structurally simple their molecules only have a small number of atoms and can’t be used by cells for complicated functions.
215
What kinds of bonds make up inorganic compounds
Ionic or covalent
216
Water make up how much of a lean adults body weight
55-60 percent
217
Inorganic compounds that contain carbon are
CO2
Bicarbonate ion HCO3-
And carbonic acid H2CO3
218
Organic compounds
Always contain carbon usually contain hydrogen and always have covalent bonds. Most are large molecules with many long carbon atom chains. They make up 38-43 percent of the body.
219
What is the most important and abundant inorganic molecule in all living systems
Water
220
What is the most important property of water? Why?
It’s polarity because it makes water an excellent solvent for all other ionic or polar substances, gives water molecules cohesion, and allows water to resist temperature changes
221
Nearly all of the body’s chemical reactions occur in
A watery medium
222
What is the most versatile solvent known to man
Water
223
In a solution
A substance called the solvent dissolves another substance called the solute
224
Solutes that are charged or contain polar covalent bonds are
Hydrophilic which means they dissolve easily in water
225
Salt and sugar are both
Hydrophilic
226
Molecules that contain many non covalent bonds
Are hydrophobic which means they are not very water soluble
227
Water enables dissolved reactants
To collide and form new products
228
Hydrolysis
When food particles undergo decomposition reactions because of the addition of water
229
When two smaller molecules join to form a larger molecule in a dehydration synthesis reaction
A water molecule is one of the newly formed products
230
Water can absorb or release large amounts of heat without
A huge effect on the temperature of the water which is why water is said to have a high heat capacity
231
What causes water to have a high heat capacity
The large number of hydrogen bonds in water
232
Since water has a high heat capacity
It lessens the impact of external temperature changes on core body temperature and maintains homeostasis
233
What does it mean that water has a high heat of vaporization
It takes a lot of heat to take water from a liquid to a gas
234
As water evaporates from the surface of the skin it removes
A large quantity of heat
235
Water acts as a______ to keep body parts from grinding against one another
Lubricant
236
Define mixture
A combination of elements or compounds that are physically blended together but not bound by chemical bonds
237
Three common liquid mixtures include
Solutions
Colloids
Suspensions
238
Solutions look transparent because
Once solutions are mixed the solutes are evenly dispersed among solvent molecules. The molecules are so small that you can’t see them
239
The main difference between a colloid and solution is
The size of its particles
240
The solute particles in a colloid are big enough to
Scatter light making the substance look opaque
241
In suspensions though the suspended material may for some time appear to mix with the suspending medium
The solute will eventually settle down to the bottom
242
Blood is an example of
A suspension
243
One way to express the concentration is
Mass per volume percentage
244
A mass per volume percentage gives
The relative mass of a solute found in a given volume of a solution
245
Another way to express concentration is
Moles per liter also called molarity
246
Moles per volume relates
The total number of molecules in a given volume of solution
247
Define mole
The amount of any substance that has a mass in grams equal to the sum of atomic masses of all its atoms
248
Define dissociation
The separation of inorganic acids bases and salts into ions in a solution
249
When inorganic acids bases and salts dissolve in water they
Dissociate
250
Define inorganic acid
A substance that dissociates into one of more hydrogen ions and one or more anions
251
An acid is also called a ______ because ________
Proton donor
Because H+ is a single proton with one positive charge
252
Define an inorganic base
A base is a substance that dissociates into one or more hydroxide ions OH- and one or more cations
253
A base is called a _________ because________
Proton acceptor
It removes H+ from a solution
254
What happens to a salt when dissolved in water
It dissociates into cations and anions neither of which is H+ or OH-
255
In the body salts can be
Electrolytes that are important for carrying electrical currents especially in nerve and muscular tissues
256
The ions of salts provide many
essential chemical elements in ICF and ECF such as blood lymph and interstitial fluid
257
Acids and bases react with each other to form
Salts
258
To ensure homeostasis intracellular and extracellular fluids must
Contain almost balanced quantities of acids and bases
259
The more hydrogen ions the more______ a solution
Acidic
260
The more hydroxide ions the more _______ a solution
Basic
261
Any departure from the normal acid base balance
Greatly disrupts body functions
262
The pH scale is based on
the concentration of H+ in moles per liter
263
A change of one whole number on the pH scale represents
A ten fold change in the number of H+
264
A substance with a pH of 7 is considered
Neutral
265
A solution that has more H+ than OH- is
An acidic solution and has a pH below 7
266
A solution that has more OH- than H+ is
A basic solution with a pH higher than 7
267
Homeostatic mechanisms keep the Ph of blood between
7.35 and 7.45
268
If the Ph of blood falls below 7.35 it results in a condition called_________
If the pH of blood rises above 7.45 it results in a condition called ______
Acidosis
Alkalosis
269
What do buffer systems do?
Convert strong acids or bases into weak acids or bases
270
Define buffers
Chemical compounds that convert strong acids or bases into weak ones
271
How do buffers neutralize strong acids and bases
By removing or adding protons
272
How does the carbonic acid bicarbonate buffer system work
The presence of carbonic acid and bicarbonate can compensate for either an excess or a shortage of H+
273
Name some strong acids
Gastric juice
Lemon juice
Vinegar
Carbonated soft drink
Orange juice
Vaginal fluid
Tomato juice
Coffee
Urine (4.6-8.0)
274
Name some pretty neutral substances pH of 6-8
Saliva
Milk
Pure water
Blood
Semen
Cerebrospinal fluid
Pancreatic juice
Bile (7.6-8.6)
275
Name two common bases
Milk of magnesia
Lye (sodium hydroxide)
276
Many organic molecules
Are relatively large and and have unique characteristics that allow them to carry out complex functions
277
Important categories of organic molecules include
Carbs
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
ATP
278
What are the properties of carbon that make life possible
It can form large molecules with many shapes by bonding with thousands of other carbon atoms
The large size of carbon molecules and the water insolubility of some carbon containing molecules make them useful for building body structures
279
Organic compounds are usually held together by
Covalent bonds
280
Since carbon has 4 valence electrons
It can bond covalently with many a variety of atoms including carbon
,hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. And others
281
Define carbon skeleton
The chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule
282
Functional groups
Other atoms or molecules bound to the hydrocarbon skeleton
283
Macromolecules
Small organic molecules that combine to form a very large molecule
284
Macromolecules are usually
Polymers
285
Define polymers
A large molecule formed by the covalent bonding of many identical or similar building block molecules called monomers
286
Usually the reaction that joins two monomers is
A dehydration synthesis
287
In a dehydration synthesis
A hydrogen atom is removed from one monomer and a hydroxyl group is removed from the other to form a molecule of water
288
These macromolecules are formed in cells via dehydration synthesis
Carbs
Lipids
Proteins
Nucleic acids
289
Name the major functional groups of organic molecules
Hydroxyl
Sulfhydrl
Carbonyl
Carboxyl
Phosphate
Amino
290
What is the significance of hydroxyl group
Alcohols contain a -OH group, which is polar and hydrophilic due to its electronegative O atom. Molecules with many -OH groups dissolve easily in water
291
Describe the occurrence and significance of the sulfhydrl group
Thiols have a -SH group, which is polar and hydrophilic due to its electronegative S atom. Certain amino acids contain -SH groups which help stabilize the shape of proteins
292
Describe the occurrence and significance of carbonyl groups
Ketones contain a carbonyl group within the carbon skeleton. The carbonyl group is electronegative due to its electronegative O atom. Aldehydes have a carbonyl group at the end of the carbon skeleton
293
Describe the occurrence and significance of Esters
Esters predominate in dietary fats and oils and also occur in our bodies as triglycerides. Aspirin is an ester of salicylic acid, a pain relieving molecule found in the bark of the willow tree.
294
Describe the occurrence and significance of phosphate groups
Phosphates contain a phosphate group which is very hydrophilic due to the dual negative charges. An important example is ATP which transfers chemical energy between organic molecules during chemical reactions
295
Describe the occurrence and significance of amino groups
Amines have an -NH2 group which can act as a base and pick up a hydrogen ion, giving the amino group a positive charge. At the pH of body fluids most amino groups have a charge of 1+. All amino acids have an amino group at one end.
296
Carbs include
Sugars
Glycogen
Starches
And cellulose
297
In humans carbohydrates mainly function as
A source of chemical energy for generating ATP needed to drive metabolic reactions
298
What are the elements found in carbs
C
H
O
299
What are the three major groups of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
Polysaccharides
300
Carbohydrates generally contain one water molecule for
Every carbon atom
301
What are monosaccharides
Simple sugars that contain 3 to 7 carbon atoms
302
What are some examples of monosaccharides
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
Deoxyribose
Ribose
303
What are disaccharides
Simple sugars created by the combination of two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis
304
What are some examples of disaccharides
Sucrose
Lactose
Maltose
305
What are polysaccharides
From tens to hundreds of monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis
306
What are some examples of polysaccharides
Glycogen
Starch
Cellulose
307
What are the monomers of carbohydrates
Monosaccharides
308
What is a disaccharide
A molecule formed by the combination of two monosaccharides by dehydration synthesis
309
Glucose and fructose are
Monosaccharides and isomers
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Disaccharides can be split into smaller simpler molecules by
Hydrolysis
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What are polysaccharides
Molecules containing tens or hundreds of monosaccharides joined by dehydration synthesis reactions
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Polysaccharides are usually
Insoluble in water
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The main polysaccharide in the body is
Glycogen
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Glycogen is made of
Glucose monomers linked to one another by branching chains
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Define starches
Polysaccharides formed from glucose by plants
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Polysaccharides can be broken down into monosaccharides by
Hydrolysis reactions
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Define cellulose
A polysaccharide formed from glucose by plants that cannot be digested by humans but does provide bulk to help eliminate feces
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Lipids make up _____of body mass in lean adults
18-25 percent
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Lipids contain what elements
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
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Lipids are typically
Insoluble in water which means they are hydrophobic
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In order to become soluble in water
Lipids join with hydrophilic proteins
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What are lipoproteins
Lipids that have combined with proteins to become soluble in water
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Name the different types of lipids in the body
Fatty acids
Triglycerides
Phospholipids
Steroids
Eicosanoids
Other lipids
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What are the functions of fatty acids
They are used to synthesize triglycerides and phospholipids or catabolized to generate ATP
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What are the functions of triglycerides
Protection
Insulation
Energy storage
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What are the functions of phospholipids
Major lipid component of cell membranes
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Name different steroids
Cholesterol
Bile salts
Vitamin D
Adrenocortical hormones
Sex hormones
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What is the functions of cholesterol
Minor component of all animal cell membranes, precursor of bile salts vitamin D and steroid hormones
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What is the function of bile salts
Needed for digestion and absorption of dietary lipids
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What is the functions of vitamin D
Helps regulate calcium level in the body, needed for bone growth and repair
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What is the function of adrenocortical hormones
Help regulate metabolism, resistance to stress, and salt and water balance
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What is the function of sex hormones
Stimulate reproductive functions and sexual characteristics
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What is the function of eicosanoids
Have diverse effects on modifying responses to hormones, blood clotting, inflammation, immunity, stomach acid secretion, airway diameter, lipid breakdown, and smooth muscle contraction.
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What are some other lipids
Carotenes
Vitamin E
Vitamin K
Lipoproteins
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What is the function of carotenes
Needed for synthesis of vitamin A, functions as an antioxidant
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Vitamin E functions
Promotes wound healing, prevents tissue scarring, contributes to normal structure and function of nervous system, and functions as an antioxidant.
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Vitamin K functions
Required for synthesis of blood clotting proteins
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What are the functions of lipoproteins
Transport lipids in blood, carry triglycerides and cholesterol to tissues, and remove excess cholesterol from blood.
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Saturated fatty acids
Contain only single covalent bonds between the carbon atoms of the hydrocarbon chains
