Chapter 2: Chemical Level Of Organization Flashcards
(164 cards)
1
Q
Elements
A
Pure substance made up of one type of atom
2
Q
C
A
Element: Carbon
Function: Backbone of organic compounds
3
Q
H
A
Element: Hydrogen
Function: Component of many compounds (water, organic compounds, bicarb)
4
Q
O
A
Element: Oxygen
Function: Needed to breakdown glucose to produce energy for the body (metabolism)
5
Q
N
A
Element: Nitrogen
Function: Component of amino acids that make proteins
6
Q
Ca
A
Element: Calcium
Function: Inorganic component of bone, muscle contraction, blood clotting, nerve impulses
7
Q
P
A
Element: Phosphorus
Function: Inorganic component of bone, component of DNA and ATP
8
Q
K
A
Element: Potassium
Function: Present inside of the cell as K+, required for nerve impulses
9
Q
Na
A
Element: Sodium
Function: Present outside of the cell as Na+, required for nerve impulses
10
Q
Fe
A
Element: Iron
Function: Transports oxygen (in hemoglobin)
11
Q
Mg
A
Element: Magnesium
Function: Required for normal body metabolism
12
Q
S
A
Element: Sulfur
Function: Component of many proteins
13
Q
Ion
A
An atom with a positive or negative charge
14
Q
Ionic Compounds
A
When two different elements come together and bind to each other. The charges balance so the overall compound has no net charge
Ex. Na+ + Cl- = NaCl
15
Q
Elements connect or bond to form compounds. There are two types of chemical bonding that are discussed:
A
- Ionic Bonds
- Covalent Bonds
16
Q
Ionic Bond
A
Attraction of positive and negative ions
17
Q
Ionic compounds are called _____.
A
Salts
18
Q
Atoms become positively or negatively charge by gaining or losing negatively charged subatomic particles called _______.
A
Electrons
19
Q
Electron
A
A small particle with a negative charge
20
Q
Cation
A
Positively charged ion; an atom becomes positively charged when it loses electron
21
Q
Anion
A
Negativity charged ion when it gains an electron
22
Q
Covalent Bonds
A
Two elements sharing electrons
23
Q
What are two types of covalent bonds?
A
- Nonpolar covalent bonds
- Polar covalent bonds
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Q
Nonpolar Covalent Bonds
A
Atoms share electrons equally (this occurs when two elements are the same such as H2, N2, O2, Cl2)
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Polar Covalent Bonds
Atoms share electrons unequally, elements are more electronegative (exert a stronger pull on electrons) than others. If one element is more electronegative than another, the bond will be polar, **because the electrons will be more attracted to one atom than the other.**
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Which elements have a stronger electronegativities and create polar covalent bonds when bonded to atoms with lower electronegativities, such as hydrogen?
Nitrogen and oxygen
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Solvent
The substance that dissolves something else (ex. Water in saltwater)
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Solute
The substance that gets dissolves (ex. Salt in saltwater)
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Solution
The mixture of the solute and solvent (ex. Saltwater)
30
Explain why sugar would be expected to dissolve in water.
Water and sugar are polar, water molecules surround the sugar molecule and form hydrogen bonds with them breaking them apart and allow them to mix evenly in water.
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Would salt dissolve in water?
Yes because it is polar
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Would most proteins dissolve in water? Why?
Yes most because they are made up of polar and charged amino acids.
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Would sugar dissolve in fat?
No because sugar is polar and fat is Nonpolar.
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Would salt dissolve in fat?
No because salt is polar and fat in Nonpolar
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Would proteins dissolve in fat?
No because proteins are polar and fat is Nonpolar
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Hydrogen Bonds
Weak attractions between a hydrogen atom and another atom (like oxygen) helping molecules stick together.
37
Metabolism
The sum of chemical reactions in the body (body converts food into energy and builds or breaks down molecules to keep you alive)
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What are two metabolic reactions?
1. Anabolism
2. Catabolism
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Anabolism
Building up molecules for growth and repair
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Catabolism
Breaking down molecules for energy
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Which type of reaction might generally be **exergonic (release energy)?**
Catabolic reactions because they break down large molecules into smaller molecules releasing energy ex. ATP
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Which type of reaction might generally be **endergonic (requires energy)?**
Anabolic because they require energy to build larger molecules ex. Protein synthesis
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Inorganic Chemistry
A field of chemistry with the study of ions and compounds without a carbon backbone.
44
What is an important inorganic compound?
H20 (water) (it is considered inorganic because it lacks carbon-hydrogen bonds)
45
The plasma of blood and the cytoplasm an are comprised of primarily ______. It is important that materials moving through the body (or within cells) dissolve in ______. Sugars and most proteins dissolve in ______. Fats do not dissolve in ______.
Water, Water, Water, Water
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What are the implications of this, relative to the transport of fat in the blood? If fat does not dissolve in blood, how is it transported?
Fats don’t dissolve in blood so they are transported by lipoproteins which wrap around the fat and carry it through the bloodstream. Without lipoprotein, it could stop circulation in the blood.
47
What are two reactions involving water?
1. Hydrolysis
2. Dehydration synthesis
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Hydrolysis
Adding water to break bonds apart
49
Most digestive enzymes work by ______.
Hydrolysis
50
Write out the general reaction for the hydrolysis of a disaccharide showing reactants and products (including water).
- Glucose + Glucose <— maltose + H20
- Glucose + Fructose <— sucrose + H20
- Glucose + Galactose <— Lactose + H20
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Is hydrolysis an example of anabolism or catabolism?
Catabolism
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Dehydration Synthesis
Removing water to build bonds
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In a dehydration reaction, a hydrogen (H) is ____ from one molecule and a OH is removed from another molecule to join the two molecules at those points. The results is a loss of water. (HOH or H20)
Removed
54
Write out the general reactions for the dehydration synthesis of a disaccharide showing all reactants and products (including water).
- Glucose + Glucose —> maltose + H20
- Glucose + Fructose —> sucrose + H20
- Glucose + Galactose —> lactose + H20
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Is dehydrated an example of anabolism or catabolism?
Anabolism
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Temperature Regulation
Sweating, evaporation of perspiration for cooling
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Water has relatively ______ specific heat, this means that it takes a lot of heat (energy) to raise temperature of water by one degree Celsius.
High
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Water also has a high heat of vaporization. What does this mean?
Takes large amounts of energy to convert liquid into gas (vapor)
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Explain how specific heat and heat of vaporization work together to help regulate body temperature homeostasis (sweating).
Water in the body helps keep you cool by heating up slowly and carrying heat away when sweat dries.
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Lubrication
Lubrication is when a slippery substance (like oil or mucus) is used to reduce friction between two surfaces so they can move smoothly.
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Ph
Measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a solution based on a scale of 0-14
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What is the normal ph of human blood?
7.35-7.45
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What does it mean when we say something is “acidic”? Give some examples.
Something acidic if it has a ph below 7 and releases hydrogen ions (H+) like lemon juice, vinegar, stomach acid.
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How does the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution with a pH of 2 compare with a solution that has a pH of 4?
100 times more hydrogen ions ( subtract exponent 10^2 - 10^4 =10^2 and then multiply exponents = 100)
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Is the normal pH of the blood acidic, neutral, or basic?
Slightly basic (alkaline)
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Why is it important for the body to maintain homeostasis of pH?
Maintaining pH homeostasis is important for the body because even a small change can denature body proteins and cellular functions leading to serious health issues.
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How does the body maintain homeostasis of pH?
Buffer systems
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Identify the components of a **buffer**.
- **Weak Acid:** Adding (H+) to become more acidic when we are too basic.
- **Conjugate Base:** Removing (H+) to become more basic when we are too acidic.
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If the blood became too acidic which component of a buffer system would help bring the pH back to its normal range?
Conjugate Base (removes H+)
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Write out the equation for the bicarbonate/carbonic acid buffer system:
H2CO3 —> H+ + HCO-3
<—
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What can bicarbonate do to control pH?
Remove H+
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What can carbonic acid do to help control H+?
Add H+
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If bicarbonate picks up or binds to a H+, what happens to the pH?
When bicarbonate (HCO-3) binds to H+ it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3) this reaction helps remove free H+ ions from the solution. **Since H+ makes a solution more acidic, binding them reduces the acidity meaning the pH increases (becomes more basic). So when bicarbonate binds to hydrogen ions, the pH goes up.**
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Is this an example of positive or negative feedback?
Negative because it works to maintain homeostasis.
75
Distinguish how an organic compound is different from an inorganic compound.
Organic compounds have a carbon backbone (carbons linked together)
76
Name three types of elements (atoms) found in all carbohydrates.
Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O)
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What is a carbohydrate?
**The body’s main source of energy (bimolecule made up of carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen)** and are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides which are broken down into glucose which cells use for energy production (ATP)
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What is a monosaccharide?
Simple sugars
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List three examples of monosaccharides.
1. Glucose
2. Fructose
3. Galactose
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What is a simple sugar? Why are monosaccharides called simple sugars?
**A simple sugar is a carbohydrate that consists of one or two sugar molecules making** it easy do the body to digest and absorb for quick energy. **Monosaccharides are called Simple sugars because they are the smallest and most basic form of carbohydrates that cannot be broken down further.**
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What is a disaccharide?
Two monosaccharides linked together
82
List three examples of disaccharides.
1. Maltose
2. Sucrose
3. Lactose
83
Which simple sugars undergo dehydration synthesis to form each of the three disaccharides listed above?
- Glucose + Glucose = Maltose + H20
- Glucose + Fructose = Sucrose + H20
- Glucose + Galactose = Lactose + H20
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What is a polysaccharide?
Long chains of monosaccharides.
85
Name three polysaccharides, and identify a major function of each:
1. Glycogen: storage form of the body
2. Starch: what we eat
3. Cellulose: Fiber
86
When a polysaccharide is made from glucose, is the reaction anabolic or catabolic?
Anabolic because it involves building larger molecules from smaller ones.
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Does this happen through hydrolysis or dehydration synthesis?
Dehydration Synthesis
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If starch is broken down to glucose, water is added to starch in a process called ______.
Hydrolysis
89
Name three functions of fats.
1. Energy storage
2. Insulation and protection
3. Cell membrane structure
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What elements do fats (triglycerides) typically contain?
C,H,O,N,P
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Triglycerides
“Glycerol” describes three carbon backbone and “Tri” refers to three long chains (long C-H fatty acid chains) that are attached to glycerol.
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Fatty acids are a family of rod-like molecules with the interesting property of having one end that is ____ and another end that is _____. This means one end of fatty acid will dissolve in water and the other will dissolve in fats. The longer part of the fatty acid molecule is a chain or carbon atoms (with hydrogens bonded).
Polar and non-polar
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In a triglycerides, three fatty acids are connected to a glycerol molecule. Being connected to the glycerol hides the polar end of the fatty acid molecule. Triglycerides are very large nonpolar molcules.
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Describe the major function of triglycerides in the cell.
Triglycerides are good for energy storage and important for insulation and protection around organs.
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If the long fatty acid chains have no double bonds, the fat is said to be ________.
Saturated
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_______ fats contain double bonds in some of the fatty acid chains.
Unsaturated
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Fats that are ______ will be liquid at room temperature. The unsaturated bonds create “bends” in the fatty acid chain making it more difficult for the triglycerides molecules to pack together tightly.
Unsaturated
98
Name some examples of fats that are solid at room temperature.
Ex. Butter, cheese
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Name some examples of fats that are liquid at room temperature.
Ex. Olive oil, fish oil
100
If triglycerides do not dissolve in water, how are they transported in the blood?
Lipoprotein
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Phospholipid
Has a three carbon backbone like a triglycerides, but one of the fatty acid chains is replace by a highly polar phosphate “head group”
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Phospholipids have only two fatty acids that are very non polar and the strongly polar phosphate head group on the other end of the molecule. Therefore, the phospholipids is a large molecule with one _______ (water loving) end and the other end ______ (water fearing).
Hydrophilic, Hydrophobic
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Phospholipids are a primary component of cellular membranes. Membrane are barriers that separates two water areas from each other. When phospholipids form membranes, the hydrophobic fatty acid portions all gather together away from the water areas, and the hydrophilic phosphate head groups are inserted into the water. Because of these interactions, membranes are highly stable.
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Explain why the polar head groups and nonpolar tails of phospholipid make it ideal for cell membranes structure.
They contain polar heads and a non-polar tail which allows the cell membrane to have a layer of fat that will separate inside of the cell from the outside of the cell.
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Steroid
Fat molecule that is made from cholesterol
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Steroids are non-polar or polar?
Non-polar
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Name some examples of steroid fats.
Hormones made from cholesterol like testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, cortisol, aldosterone, also vitamin D (calcitrol)
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How might steroids be transported in the blood?
They bind to carrier proteins
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Eicosenoids
Another important type of fat made from omega 6 and omega 3 fatty acids. They come from essential fat (must be taken in with a diet)
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Many eicosenoids are important regulatory molecules in the body. One example is ______.
Prostaglandins
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Prostaglandins are derivatives of ________ __________.
Arachidonic Acid
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List some body processes regulated by prostaglandins.
1. Inflammation
2. Blood clotting
3. Smooth muscle contraction
4. Blood vessel dilation
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What are the four types of fat that are emphasized in this chapter?
1. Triglycerides
2. Phospholipids
3. Steroids (cholesterol)
4. Eicosenoids
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Because proteins are chains of amino acids, and there are about _____ naturally occurring amino acids, the possible number of different proteins is inconceivable. Many proteins are made of a combination of more than 100 amino acids.
20
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Proteins are ______ compounds.
Organic because they have a carbon backbone.
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Since some amino acids are polar and other amino acids are non-polar, there are portions that are hydrophobic and other portions that are hydrophilic. These hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions of a protein play a role in its 3 dimensional structure.
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Name the elements (types of atoms) found In proteins.
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur
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List some functions of proteins.
Hormone function, structural function, muscle proteins, hemoglobin, enzyme function.
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Although proteins have numerous functions, one group that should always come to mind is ______ which help regulate and facilitate many of the chemical reactions in the body.
Enzymes
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Proteins are long chains of building blocks called ______ ______.
Amino Acids
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Can a protein only be one amino acid long?
No, they are made up of one or more polypeptide chain.
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Amino acids are linked together to make a protein by removing water, a processes called ______. The bonds between amino acids are called _______ bonds.
Dehydration, Peptide.
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Approximately how many different amino acids are there that make up proteins?
20
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What is meant by the term **essential** amino acids? Why are they important in the diet?
They have to be taken in with diet and they are essential because they serve as the building blocks which is crucial for nearly every function in the body.
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Are **non-essential** amino acids necessary in the diet un order to make body proteins? Why or why not?
Non-essential means we make them from other components from our body.
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What are the four protein structures?
1. Primary
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
4. Quaternary
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Primary Structure
Unique sequence of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds in a linear chain (linking amino acid that we know have to be linked together to make a particular protein)
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Secondary Structure
Turns into a helix or zig zag (pleated sheet)
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Tertiary Structure
Protein folds in a unique three dimensional shape.
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Quaternary Structure
2 or more separate protein chains come together to make a functional protein.
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In general, the three dimensional shape of proteins or the body is either globular or fibrous. Protein structure is linked to protein function. If protein structure is changed, the proteins often loses its ability to function.
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What does it mean to say that a protein has been **denatured**?
Denaturation is the process in which a protein loses its functional three dimensional shape due to factors like heat, pH change, or chemicals resulting in loss of function.
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What would happen to the function of hemoglobin if it becomes denatured?
It will lose its three-dimensional structure, preventing it from effectively binding and transporting oxygen. Which can lead to impaired oxygen delivery to tissues and serious health consequences.
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Name two conditions that might cause hemoglobin to denature.
High Fever (extreme heat) and Acidosis (low blood pH)
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Explain whether denaturation is reversible or irreversible.
Both depending on the severity of the damage and the protein involved. **Reversible Denaturation**occurs when mild conditions disrupt the proteins shape but allow to refold once normal conditions are restored. **Irreversible Denaturation**happens when extreme conditions cause permanent structural damage, preventing the proteins shape but from regaining its function.
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Enzymes: one of the most significant groups of proteins. Enzymes are proteins that ________ reactions. They increase the speed of reactions.
Catalyze
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List five characteristics of enzymes that make them unique.
1. Specific
2. Catalyze
3. Regulation
4. Reusability
5. Sensitivity to regulation
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If enzymes are proteins, can they be denatured?
Yes
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Substrate
A substrate is the molecule that an enzyme works on, fitting into the enzymes active site much like a key fits into a lock, to be transformed into a new product.
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Describe what happens if an enzyme is denatured. How might Denaturation of an enzyme affect the function of the cell.
When an enzyme is denatured its structure is altered so that it can no longer bind to its substrate effectively, disrupting essential cellular reactions and impairing cell function.
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Name two nucleic acids.
DNA and RNA
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DNA is comprised of _____ in a double helix structure. This looks like a ladder that has been twisted.
Nucleotides
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What are three components of nucleotides?
1. Sugar
2. Nitrogenous Base
3. Phosphate
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What are the nitrogenous bases in DNA?
1. Adenine
2. Cytosine
3. Guanine
4. Thymine
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Which nitrogenous bases pair and bond with one another in the DNA double helix?
G, C and A,T
146
Describe the primary function of DNA. DNA contains the code for making which type of molecule?
DNA stores genetic information that dictates the structure and function of a cell. DNA codes for the body’s proteins.
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DNA is organized into a series of three nitrogenous bases units. Explain the significance of this unit in cell function.
Bases are important as triplets GTT, AGC, CCG. These are codes for amino acids to create a protein.
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How can the cell make sense if a string of nitrogenous bases such as ACCGTGCCTATATA? What is its purpose in the making of protein?
The cell reads DNA to build proteins and proteins does the job that keep the cell and body alive.
149
A series of 12 nitrogenous bases would code for ___ amino acids.
4
150
Explain what is meant by saying that DNA controls “Who you are.”
DNA holds the code or instructions for making all the proteins that build and run your body.
151
Describe the function of RNA.
RNA carries the code (from DNA) into the cell to make a protein.
152
Describe the three structural differences between RNA and DNA.
1. RNA is single stranded
2. RNA contains G,C,U,A
3. The sugar is Ribose
153
What is ATP?
The usable form of energy in the body.
154
If the cell needs energy to perform, some type of work, that energy generally must be in what form?
ATP or adenosine Triphosphate
155
Where is ATP produced in the cell? Where is ATP found in the cell?
Mitochondria
156
Write down the reaction by which ATP is formed from ADP (forming ATP).
ADP + P + energy —-> ATP
157
Is this reaction exergonic or endergonic?
Endergonic because it requires energy.
158
Does this occur by hydrolysis or dehydration?
Dehydration
159
Write down the reaction by which ATP is broken down to ADP (Breaking ATP).
ATP —> ADP + P + energy
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Is this reaction exergonic or endergonic?
Exergonic because it releases energy
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Does this occur by hydrolysis or dehydration?
Hydrolysis
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The enzyme that catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP is called ______.
ATPase
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What class or organic compound is ATPase?
Enzyme
164
Where does the energy to make ATP in the cell come from?
Food
