Chapter 2 - Language, dialects and varieties

Question 1

List Bell’s 7 criteria used to distinguish b/w languages

Answer 1

1) standardization
2) Vitality
3) histrocity
4) Autonomy
5 Reduction
6) mixture
7) De facto norms

Question 2

what is standardization/codification? what are some historical events that have caused codification

Answer 2

process by which a language is codified, meaning to be “set in stone”
- purpose is to To reduce/eliminate variation
- it is a result of puristic efforts
Hisotrical events include:
-holy books
-printing press (Gutenberg) - moveable type
- Martin Luther’s tranlation of the bible to German
-Whycliff’s grammar books

Question 3

what are the steps of standardization?

Answer 3

FORMAL
- Codification: dictionaries, grammar books
- Elaboration: make sure it’s used in schoolds and media ect.
FUNCTIONAL
- Selecting a norm - identify/select a vernacular
- Accepting a norm
- Idealizing the norm - convince speakers that this norm gives you power

Question 4

what is an example of stndardization

Answer 4

Finland (rapid standardization from russia and sweden)

Question 5

What is vitality (2nd criteria)? example?

Answer 5

Does it have living speakers?

ex. Celtic Ls - languages can be revived (like hebrew) bot not resurrected in original form

Question 6

What is Histrocity (3rd criteria)? example?

Answer 6

How the language gives people an identity

ex. German

Question 7

What is Autonomy (4th criteria)? example?

Answer 7

People’s loyalty towards the language - the extent to which they feel their language is ‘different’ from others
ex. African american vernacular english (ebonics) feel that they speak something separate from english

Question 8

What is reduction (5th criteria)? example?

Answer 8

When the L has a variety that can be called a sub-variety - results from lack of power/prestige
ex. the cockney sub variety

Question 9

What is mixture (6th criteria)? example?

Answer 9

the purity of their variety

ex. German and French don’t want english words sneaking into their L - they want to keep it “pure”

Question 10

What are de facto norms (7th criteria)? example?

Answer 10

A feeling among speakers that there are norms about the use of that language

ex. “proper usage” of the gender of objects in french
- de facto norms preserve the elite

Question 11

what happens when a variety is selected as a norm? what is the key to selecting a norm?

Answer 11

• that variety gains powers while all other varieties lose power
• The elite variety is typically chosen
  Key= solidarity

Question 12

What are the 6 functions of standardization?

Answer 12

1) makes language teachable
2) language takes on ideological dimensions
3) Unites some speakers while separating others
4) Reflects and symbolizes identities
5) Gives more prestige to some speakers
6) Goal for those with different norms

Question 13

What is rapid standardization? Example?

Answer 13

• deliberate standardization due to political reasons
  ex. Finland used to be part of sweden and Russia. The it became independent and needed to unite speakers, so they created a standardized version of finish

Question 14

difference b/w written and spoken varieties of the standard english

Answer 14

Written
-heavily codified
-similar grammar and vocab for all varieties
Spoken
- local variety
- Convergence of varieties in the UK

Question 15

what are some popular yet incorrect opinions of standard Languages?

Answer 15

• codification = a fixed end point
• only ‘dead’ languages are standardized
• standard = proper
• variation = bad

Question 16

Who was Robert Lowth? Why was his work important?

Answer 16

Bishop at the church of England, professor of poetry at oxford
- his prescriptive grammar (which was legislated into English grammar) was very important in the standardization of English

Question 17

are languages equal?

Answer 17

languages are equal linguistically but not socially

Question 18

how can the standard language lead to reconstruction of historical facts?
real example?

Answer 18

A group of people speak a standard variety X1 - group splits into 3, X1a, X1b, and X1c. THen X1a discovers oil, gains power and people falsely claim that X1a was the original and b/c are historical variants.

example.
ex. 2 scottish english is said to be a historical variant of london english because it had the most power at the time of standardization

Question 19

The level of formality we choose is governed by what?

Answer 19

• social circumstances
• Type of occasion
• Task involved
• emotional involvement

Question 20

what is a register? example?

Answer 20

A set of linguistic items associated with discrete occupational groups

• facilitate speedy communication
• Register shows what you are doing
  ex. “code blue” between doctors

Question 21

What are the 2 types of dialects?

Answer 21

Regional - Marks residents of a particular geographical areas from other regions
Social - A variety associated with a particular social group

Question 22

What are the 2 types of linguistics?

Answer 22

Historical (diachronic): tries to describe how a language has changed over time
Synchronic: When we look at a language at one moment in time

Question 23

Define a standard language plus example.

Answer 23

• codified by grammars/ dictionaries
• used in areas of literature, courts, education, administration and commerce
• more prestigious/ powerful
• goal for those with different norms
• regarded as ‘proper usage’ of the language
• the variety taught as a foreign language
• spoken by educated people, used in news broadcasts

example: Standard English – based on a dialect developed after the Norman conquest