Chapter 2: Research Methodology Flashcards
(51 cards)
1
Q
Nature of Science
A
- combine logic with research and experimentation
- involve common sense and observation while recognizing the inherent limitations of both
2
Q
Limits of Observation
A
Senses can be Fooled
-way brain organizes and interprets sensory info varies from person to person
Generalization
-ppl tend to generalize from their observations and assume that it they witnessed it in one situation it applies to all similar ones
3
Q
What is Science?
A
- an attitude and process, not a product
- question authority
- open skepticism
- intellectual honesty
4
Q
Goals of Science
A
1) Describe
2) Predict
3) Control
4) Explain
5
Q
Scientific Method
A
-systematic and dynamic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena OPTIC -observe -predict -test -interpret -communicate
6
Q
Theories
A
- set of related assumptions from which testable predictions can be made
- can be used to explain observations or make predictions
- constructed after hypotheses are made and tested
- specific, informed, and testable!!
Good Theory:
- falsifiable (need to define what should or should not observe if it is true)
- testable hypothesis
- SIMPLE
7
Q
Replication
A
- science has no value without replication
- possible that a single finding can be caused by chance
- science is cumulative (building on past knowledge)
8
Q
Pseudoscience
A
Claims presented that lack several qualities of science
- advances no true knowledge
- disregards facts
- logic is unsound or absent
- vague or incomplete explanations and conclusions
9
Q
Research Ethics
Humans
A
-has to meet a set of criteria by panel of experts (IRB) before can be conducted
- Informed Consent
- minimized costs, maximized benefits
- can stop at anytime with no penalty
- deception must be justified to IRB - Respect for Persons
- autonomy of ind must be protected
- risk/benefit ration must be protected - Debriefing
- Privacy and Confidentiality
- Justice
- benefits and costs must be equally distributed across participants
10
Q
Ethical Research with Animals
A
- entitled to be treated in a humane way to greatest extent possible
- pain and suffering must be minimized
- euthanasia when req must be done painlessly as possible
11
Q
Research Steps
Scientific Method
A
1-form hypothesis 2-conduct literature review 3-design a study 4-conduct study 5-analyze data 6-report results
12
Q
Belmont Report
A
- no one can force participation
- have right to discontinue study at any time
- legally and ethically entitled to know what you are agreeing to so that you can make informed decision
13
Q
Stanford Prison Study
A
-subjects were not fully notified extents of cost of study ( informed consent)
14
Q
Reliability of Research Results
A
Consistency -same answer each time you ask question? -temporal stability Degree of Agreement bw Investigators -same answer when dif ppl as same question?
15
Q
External Validity
A
- extent to which data collected actually tells you something about phenomena you are measuring
- depends on dependent variable
16
Q
Naturalistic Observations
A
- as natural as possible so as not to induce certain behavior (Hawthorne Effect)
- can use cover story so subjects unaware of true nature of study
17
Q
Blind Conditions
A
-participants not told if they are given test or control conditions
18
Q
Answering Questions
A
-ppl may not answer sensitive questions honestly bc want to look good in presence of researcher
19
Q
Observer Bias
A
- easy to see what we want to see
- perceive data in a certain light
20
Q
Observer Bias
Rosenthal
A
- “smart mice” vs “dull mice”
- teacher bias: students who’s teachers thought they has a high IQ did better in school than those whose teachers thought had an average IQ (regardless of actual IQ)
21
Q
Observer Bias
Double Blind
A
-researcher administering task does not know which group subject is in or the diagnosis (minimize bias)
22
Q
Experimental Control
A
- random assignment
- do not want self selection–need to make sure difference between groups is only due to manipulated variable (not extraneous)
23
Q
Representative Samples
A
-craw valid conclusions about whole population of interest (all dif types of ppl in that pop)
24
Q
Types of Research
Descriptive Studies
A
- researcher defines a problem and variable of interest but makes no prediction and does not control or manipulate anything
- no testing of hypothesis
- exploratory
Advantages:
-early stages of research to determine whether a phenom. exists
-takes place in real world setting (external validity)
Disadvantages:
-errors in observation due to expectations
-observer’s presence can effect behavior being witnessed (reactivity)
25
Types of Research
Descriptive Studies
Naturalistic Observation
- allowing subjects behave as normally would if not being observed
- external validity
- but conditions can't be controlled so can't determine cause and effect of dif variables
26
Types of Research
Descriptive Studies
Participant Observations
- interviews, surveys
- can get biased responses
ex: kinsey did not use representative sampling (oversampled his home state) and interviewed face to face about private issues which may have resulted in subjects being dishonesty
- self report bias: ppl tend to describe themselves in positive ways not necessarily true
27
Types of Research
| Longitudinal Studies
```
Advantages:
-provide info about effects of age on same ppl (allow to see developmental stages)
Disadvantages:
-expensive
-long time
-high drop out rate
```
28
Types of Research
| Cross Sectional Studies
```
Adv:
-faster than longitudinal
-less expensive
Disadv:
-unidentifiable variables may be involved (cohort effect)
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29
Types of Research
| Correlational Studies
- measure two or more variables and examine relationship between them
- can't determine cause and effect
30
Correlational Studies
| Scatterplot
- spread away from line of best fit gives idea as to variability
- correlational coefficient is numerical representation of relationship (range from 1 to -1)
- 1 is perfect direct relationship
- (-1) is a perfect inverse relationship
- outliers can give misleading coefficient
- if there is a restricted range of values there may be an association but the measure isn't sensitive enough in order to pick up the correlation
31
Correlational Studies
| Third Variable
-can cause both A and B (A doesn't cause B)
Matched Samples
-match 3rd variables across groups
Matched Pairs
-match 3rd variables across people (1 to 1 mapping of variable)
32
Experimental Studies
Confounding Variables
-additional variables whose influences cannot be separated from the independent variable of interest
Advantages
-can demonstrate causal relationships (avoid directionality problem)
Disadvantages
-often take place in artificial setting
33
Experimental Studies
| Random Assignment
- each part. in study has same chance of being in experimental or control group
- equalize in terms of other variables
34
Experimental Studies
| Self Selection
-problem that occurs when anything about a person determines whether he or she will be included in experimental or control group
35
Experimental Studies
| Single Blind
-participant does not know condition to which they have been assigned to avoid behaving in a biased way
36
Experimental Studies
| Double Blind
- neither participant or experimenter knows which condition to which the participant has been assigned to avoid bias on both sides
- prevents experimenter expectancy effects
- Robert Rosenthal and discovery of experimenter bias (self fulfilling prophecy)
37
Experimental Studies
| Quasi Experimental Design
-makes uses of naturally occurring groups rather than randomly assigning subjects to groups
38
Meta Analysis
-quantitative method for combining all published research results on one question and drawing a conclusions
Requires use of effect sizes
- standardized statistics
- allows different studies to be compared to each other even if they used different methods or produced different stats
- look at average effect size across all studies
- have advantage of huge sample size
- there is a publishing bias for positive effect (don't get published if null effects)
39
Measurement
Operational Definition:
-must define property we wish to measure
Good Measurements:
1) Internal Validity
-does data collected address your question?
2) Reliability
-is there consistency of your measurement? or does data collected vary over time?
3) Power
-is the measure sensitive enough to detect a difference if it exists or not to detect a difference that does not exist?
4) Accuracy
-is the measure error-free?
40
Commonly Used Measures
| Self Report
Interviews
- responses are coded into broad categories or summarized in a meaningful way
- questions often open ended
Questionnaires
-responses limited to choices given
```
Adv:
-easy to code, use, and analyze
Disadv:
-self report bias
-social desirability issues
```
41
Behavioral Measures
- based on systematic observation of people's actions, either in their normal environment or lab setting
- social desirability and observer bias are reduced with behavioral measures
- researchers quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific stimulus
Three Major Types:
- rxn time
- response accuracy
- stimulus judgments
42
Physiological Measures
- brain imaging technologies
- blood pressure
- sweating etc
- all these methods are correlational
43
Statistics
-collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of numerical data
44
Descriptive Statistics
- summarizes data
- organizes data
ex. plot a frequency distribution
```
Ideal Experiment
-zero variance and zero overlap
-not realistic
Next Best Thing
-zero overlap (variability exists)
More Likely
-some overlap between groups on performance measures
-need statistics to determine how much overlap does there have to be to determine that the independent variable had no effect on dependent
```
45
Descriptive Stats
| Sources of Variation
- experimental measurement (within and across observers)
| - participant behavior (within and between subject variation)
46
Descriptive Stats
| Measures of Central Tendency
Mean
-arithmetic average of data set
-most affected by the skew (mode stays where it is and median is less effected)
Median
-score that separates the upper half from the lower half in a data set
Mode
-most frequently occurring score
Normal Distribution
-all three measures of central tendency are the same
47
Descriptive Stats
| Variability
- frequency
- range
Standard deviation
- measure of how much scores in a data set vary around the mean
- two different data sets with identical means could have very different SD
48
Different Types of Distributions
| on a Frequency Distribution Graph
```
Normal
-all three measures of central tendency are the same
-perfectly symmetrical bell curve in which scores cluster around the middle
Positive Skew
-mode is top left
-median is down and to the right
-mean is more down and to the right
Negative Skew
-mode is top right
-median down and to the left
-mean more down and to the left
```
49
Z Score
-tells you how many standard deviations above or below the score is from the mean
z= (y-Yavg)/SD
50
Inferential Statistics
- related to whether or not you can reject or accept the null hypothesis of your experimental design
- results deemed unlikely to be due to chance are called statistically significant
51
t-test
-compares two means to see if the two samples come from the same population
