Chapter 2 - Studying Groups Flashcards by Alisha Kassam

How to get people to change their behaviour?

Deal with existing web of relationships, rather than isolate them as individuals

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Collective Representations

Ideas, beliefs that don’t belong to the individual but instead are a product of social collectivity
Opposite of group fallacy

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Group Fallacy + What is it the opposite of?

Groups are not real entitites
Individuals can think or feel but not groups
Opposite of collective representatitive
Fallacy that group is a whole rather than individual parts

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Group Mind

Collective conciousness
People act diff in groups
Memebers act as if they are one mind but they truly dont sharea single mental state

When asked if group have minds, general people are thought not to have group minds (facebook users), but smaller, cohesive groups (ie. boston red sox) thoight to have group mine

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Distance that a dot of light had moved experiment

People in the experiment accepted a standard estimate rather than their own judgement
When later given opportunity to make judgement alone, men still did not change their answer from the groups norm

New members who entered also changed his behaviour until it matched the groups norm - therefore the norm exists at the group level rather than individual level

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Lewin and interactionism

Lewin is father of group dynamics

Behaviour is determined by the person and the environment that they are in. Ie. P could be extroversion but depending on the E the person may be quiet or loud

Field Theory Formula: b=f(P,E)

B: behaviour
F: function
P: personal characteristics
E: environment (include features of the group, group members, situation)

Individuals merge, something new is created

Group is more than the sum of individual members (gestalt)

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Multilevel Perspective

Examining group behaviour from different levels:

Micro: research, actions of individual members

Meso: group level factors. Looking at cohesiveness, norms, roles, etc.

Macro: large group qualities such as observing communities and societies

Interdisciplinary perspective: bringing these perspectives together

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What are the different types of observation?

Overt: no attempt to hide that you are observing

Covert: record group activity without them knowing

Partcipant observation: watching and recording group as a membership

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Reactivity and Hawthorne Effect

People act differently when they know they are being observed

Western electric company
ALL Changes led to improved worker output
Figured that bright and dim lights cant both create a positive change thus
Worked harder because being observed

That’s why many use covert observation

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How to structure Observations?

Qualitative study

Quantitive study:
Classify behaviour into a definable category
Code the categories
Specify what each behaviour will look like
Track the frequency of the occursncrs

Coding systems for studying groups:
IPA: interaction process analysis, classifies observed behav into 1 of 12 categories ie. shows solidarity
SYMLOG

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IPA: interaction process analysis for observation

Robert Bales - interaction process analysis

Coding system for qualitative research

Emotional areas positive and negetive
task areas attempt to answer and asking questions to others

idea is that observer should know these types of actions and be aware when they occur

New model is for groups: SYMLOG - systematic multiplelevel observation of group

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Realiability and validity of observations

Reliability: a measures consistancy

Interrater reliability: consistancy across raters

Validity: technique measures what it is suppose to measure

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Reliability

Consistancy with results/test scores

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Inter-rater reliability

Consistant no matter who the rater is

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Validity

Technique measures what it is suppose to measure

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Sociometry

Moreno

Measuring the relations between group members and summarizing the relationships geographically
Ie. women in cottage dispute. Change location of individuals with those they get a long with

Then placed into sociogram

Self-report measure

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Sociogram

Diagram of the relationships between group members

Figure 2.4

Social Network Analysis

Sociometry was the earlier form

Producdure to study:
Relational structure of group (ties)
Linking members (nodes)
Centrality
Betweenness
Cohesiveness 
Cliques
Hierachies

Graphic representation
Able to do large groups like Facebook

Research methods in group dynamics

Case studies: best way to understand a group

Correlational studies: Newcombe Bennington study of high school political views. Conservative to liberal

Experimental studies: leadership study- democratic vs. Authoritarian leader

Expressed in correlational coefficients: - + 0

Bona fide groups

Naturally occuring groups

Eg. Audiences

Opposite of ad hoc groups: created for research purposes

Reference Group

A group that provides the guidelines to individuals for evaluating themselves, their attudes, their beliefs.

Ie. the popular kids shape freshman

Families serve as a reference group in childs younger years

Correlation coefficients

Measures strength and direction of the relationships among variables

0: variables are unrelated
+
- : draw graph

What is one of the first experimental studies of groups?

Differing styles of leadership

Adults were autocractic, democracti, or laissez-faire

Measured group productivity and aggressiveness of boys who has each leader

Autocractic spent more time working

Independent Variable

Can manipulate

What is the best research method?

Combination of them

What are the perspectives for group dynamics?

``` Motivational perspective Behavioural Systems Cognitive Biological ```

Motivational perspective

Groups fulfill motivations of people such as the hierachy of needs

Behavioural perspective

Skinner drives may shape peoples reactions in groups. Measure how person behaves in context rather than psychological process that instigated their actions Law of effect: positive reinforcement continues behav and negetive reinforcement extinguishes behaviour Social exchange theory: individuals seek out relationships that offer them many rewards while extracting a few costs Satisfaction level Quality of alternatives Investment size

Systems Perspective

Systems theory: members are the units of the system Interreleated Interchangeable Input-process-output model: Inputs(raw material) are transformed by internal system processes to generate output(results) Ie. input individuals skills and output performance

Cognitive perspective + Group Referent Effect

How members gather information How members make sense of info Group referent effect: social comparisons (about self and others) with a reference group

Self-reference effect

Tendancy for people to have better memories for events that they are personally connected to in some way

Group-reference effect

The tendancy for group members to have better memories for events that are related to their group

Biological Perspectives

Threat/challenge model: Biopsychosocial model Groups that feel their work is challenging respond differently physiologically than groups that feel threatened by complex tasks CO (cardiac output) increase for those who feel challenge rather than threat Testosterone effects group and who may be leader Brain feels emotional pain, rejection

Objectivity in Research

Hypothesis Research procedure Reliable and valid measurement

Field theory

Lewin B=f(P,E) Wanted to apply his research** Action research: theory -> research -> apply -> info. from application -> theory -> research.. Brought a systematic approach to the field: studying group formation, cohesion, structure, influence, etc.

Internal Consistency + Item-Total Correlations

Questions on test should be connected/consistant Eg. Exam on memory shouldn’t have questions about carrots Item-total correlations: the correlation/consistency of the item with the others items on a test

Test-Retest Reliability

between scores of two administrations across time Looking if the reliability changes overtime People mature, change, die

Predictive Validity

scores are related to some future outcome Ie. high scores on SAT are positively correlated with high GPA

Relationship between reliability and validity

Tests that are reliable are not necessarily valid or predictive But if the reliability of a psychological measure increases, the validity is also expected to increase You need both validity and reliability If there is ambiguous words on a test, it is not valid (Oprah quiz on happiness)

Measurements

Observation: covert, overt, participant in group | Self report

Research methods

Case studies Experiments Correlational studies

Theoretical Perspectives

``` Motivation Behavioural Systems Cognitive Biological ```