Chapter 2 Theories of Development

Question 1

What is a Developmental Theory?

Answer 1

• A group of ideas, assumptions, generalizations that create a framework to interpret observations to explain patterns and problems of deveopment

Question 2

What is the Psychoanalytic theory?

Answer 2

A theory of human deveopment that holds that irrational, unconscious drives and motives often oriiginating in childhood, underlie human behavior

Question 3

What are the theories of Sigmund Frued?

Answer 3

• In the first six years there are three stages:
• *-Infancy: oral stage
• Early childhood: anal stage
• Preschool: phallic stage
• Adolescense: genital stage**
• Each stage is characterized by sexual interest and pleasure centered on a particular part
• Each stage also has its own conflicts, and how people experience and resolve these conflicts, determine personality patterns. These same patterns continue into adulthood as new stages do not occur
• The personality has three parts:
• *-ID**: unconscious drive, animal like, sexual and aggressive
• *-superego**: moral ideal, the conscious, learned from parents and society
• *-ego**: conscious self
• Defense Mechanisms keep id and superego in check:
• Rationalization: finding logical reason to justify irrational id or superego
• sublimation: transforming energy from libido into something

Question 4

What theories did Erik Erikson construct?

Answer 4

The eight stage of developmental crisis:

1. Birth to 1 year: Trust vs mistrust
2. 1-3 years: Autonomy vs shame and doubt
3. 3-6 years: Initiative vs guilt
4. 6-11 years: Industry vs inferiority
5. Adolescence: Identity vs role confusion
6. Adulthood: intamacy vs isolation
   - Generativity vs stagnation
   - Integrity vs despair

Question 5

What Is behaviorism? Who was John B. Joshnson?

Answer 5

1. Study of human behavior. Also called learning theory as it describes laws and processes by which behavior is learned
2. Early behaviorist, believed pssychology should examine what can be seen and measured

Question 6

What is conditioning? What are the types?

Answer 6

1. The process by which responses beecome linked to a particular stimuli
2. Classical and operant

Question 7

Who is Ivan pavlov? What is classicsal conditioning?

Answer 7

1. Demonstrated classical conditioning
2. A person or animal is conditioned to associate a neutral stimulus with a meaningful stimulus.

Question 8

Who was B.F Skinner? What is Operant conditioning?

Answer 8

1. A proponent of behaviorism who r_ecognized operant conditioning_
2. Learning process by which a particular action is followed by something desired (reinforcement) or something unwanted (punishment

Question 9

Who is Albert Bandura? What is social learning theory? HWat is modeling?

Answer 9

1. Developed social learning theory
2. An extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the influence of other people over a persons behavior. People learn through observation and imitation without reinforcement
3. A central process of learning by which a person observes the actions of others and then copies them

Question 10

What are the three types of learning?

Answer 10

1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
3. Social learning

Question 11

What is self-efficacy?

Answer 11

• In social learning theory, the belief of some people that they are able to change themselves and effectively alter the social context

Question 12

What is cognitive theory?

Answer 12

Focuses on changes in how people think over time. our thoughts shape our attitudes, beliefs and behaviors

Question 13

Who is Jean piget? What are his theories?

Answer 13

1. One of the first cognitive theorist, and swiss scientist
2. Theorised that cognitive development occurs in four stage:
   * *-Sensorimotor
   - Preoperational
   - concrete operational
   - formal operational**

Question 14

Detail Piagets perioods of cognitive deveopment

Answer 14

• Birth to 2 years: sensorimotor: Infants use senses and motor abilities to understand the world. Learning is active. There is no conceptual or reflective thought
• 2-6 years: preoperational: children think magically and poetically, using language to understand the world. thinking is egocentric
• 6-11: concrete operational: children understand and apply logical operations, principles to interpret experiences objectively and rationally. Thinking limited to what they see, hear and experience
• 12 to adult: formal operational: Think about abstractions and hypothetical conceptss and reason analytically, not just emotionally. Can e logical about things they have never experienced

Question 15

What is cognitive equilibrium? What are assimilation and accomidation?

Answer 15

1. a state of mental balance in which people are not confused because they can use their existing thought process to understand current experiences and ideas
2. Assimilation and Accomodation are two forms of cognitive adaptation theorised by Jean Piaget to adapt to cognitive disequilebrium
   - assimilation: new experiemces are reinterpreted to fit into, or assimilate wit old ideas
   - acomodation: old ideas are reconstructed to include, or accomodate new experiences

Question 17

What is Sociocultural theory?

Answer 17

A theory that holds that development results from the dynamic interaction of each person with the surrounding social and cultural forces

Question 18

Who is Lev Vygotsky? What is apprenticeship in thinking?

Answer 18

1. Lev Vygotsky: pioneer of sociocultural perspective. Learned that people learned even without school from apprenticeship in thinking
2. Each person, schooled or not, develops competencies taught by more skilled members of society who are tutors or mentors

Question 19

what are social constructiosn?

Answer 19

Cultural patterns and beliefs

Question 20

What is the **zone of proximal development? **

Answer 20

In sociocultural theory, a metaphoric area surrounding a learner that includes all the skills knowledge and concepts that the person is close to acquiring but cannot yet master without help

Question 21

What is Behaviroism? What is unique about behaviorism?

Answer 21

1. A theory that stresses the importance of all humans for good and the belief that all people have the same basic needs, regardless of culture, gender or background
2. Emphasises human spirit as opposed to psychoanalytic which stresses animalistic selfish id or behaviorism which ignores free will

Question 22

What is the Maslows hierarchy of basic needs?

Answer 22

1. Psychological: food, water, warmth, air
2. Safety and security: feeling of protection from injury and death
3. Love and belonging: having loving friends, family, and a community
4. Respect and esteem: being respected by the wider community as well as by oneself
5. Self actualization: becoming truley oneself, fullfiling one’s unique potential while appreciating all of humanity

Question 23

What did Carl Rogers believe?

Answer 23

Though people should give eachother unconditional positive regaerd

Question 24

What is selective adaptation?

Answer 24

The process by which living creatures adjust to their environment. Genes that enhance survival and reproductive ability are selected, over generations, to become more frequent

Question 25

Discuss the role of **psychoanalytic theories, behaviorism, cognitive theories, sociocultural theories and universal theories** on our understanding of human development

Answer 25

1. **Psychoanalytic:** made us aware of the impact of early childhood experiences, remembered or not, on subsequent development 2. **Behaviorism:** shows the effect that immediate responses, associations, and examples have on learning, moment by moment over time 3. **Cognitive theories:** shows how our undertsanding of intellectual processes and how our thoughts and beliefs affect every aspect of our development 4. **universal theories:** stress that human differences are less significant than what all humans share

Question 26

What is an **eclectic perspective?**

Answer 26

The approach taken by most developmentalists in which they apply aspects of each of the various theories of development rather than adhering exclusively to one theory