Chapter 20-23

Question 1

a field that investigates how changes in the developmental processes of individual organisms relate to evolutionary changes that occur between generations

Answer 1

evolutionary developmental biology

Question 2

study of the relation between evolution and development

Answer 2

evolutionary developmental biology

Question 3

is a field that seeks to understand how changes in the processes of embryonic and larval development lead to evolutionary changes in adult form (morphology)

Answer 3

developmental evolution

Question 4

refers to the changes in the form, structure, and appearance of organisms over evolutionary time. It focuses on the observable anatomical and physiological features of species, both extant (living) and extinct (from the fossil record).

Answer 4

morphological evolution

Question 5

specifically focuses on the changes in DNA and/or RNA, and the consequences of these changes on proteins and other cellular components

Answer 5

molecular or chromosomal evolution

Question 6

the study of how animal behaviors (including human behaviors) have changed over evolutionary time, driven by natural selection and other evolutionary forces. It examines the adaptive value of behaviors, their genetic and environmental bases, and how they contribute to an organism’s survival and reproduction.

Answer 6

behavioral evolution

Question 7

the stages of an organism’s development
correspond to the species’ phylogenetic history: in a phrase, “ontogeny recapitulates
phylogeny.”

Answer 7

theory of recapitulation

Question 8

posits that the embryonic development (ontogeny) of an individual organism reflects the evolutionary history (phylogeny) of its species

Answer 8

theory of recapitulation

Question 9

the process of adding new structures or elements at the posterior end of an organism’s body during development

Answer 9

terminal addition

Question 10

have a straight vertebral column extending to the tip of the tail, which is then divided symmetrically

Answer 10

diphycercal

Question 11

a tail where the vertebral column extends into the upper lobe, making it larger than the lower lobe

Answer 11

heterocercal

Question 12

tails have two lobes of equal size

Answer 12

homocercal

Question 13

the evolutionary process where new developmental stages or traits are added within the existing developmental sequence, rather than just at the end of the life cycle

Answer 13

non-terminal addition

Question 14

These make up all the cells in the body except the reproductive cells.

Answer 14

Somatic cells

Question 15

proceeds through a series of stages, from egg to adult.

Answer 15

Somatic development

Question 16

encompasses the physical growth and development of an organism’s body, from infancy through adulthood

Answer 16

somatic development

Question 17

Reproduction in what was ancestrally a juvenile form

Answer 17

pedomorphosis

Question 18

the evolutionary process where adult organisms retain juvenile or larval traits, essentially “staying young”

Answer 18

pedomorphosis

Question 19

somatic development slows down in absolute time, while reproduction development proceeds at the same rate

Answer 19

neoteny

Question 20

retardation of bodily development

Answer 20

neoteny

Question 21

acceleration of sexual maturation in early life

Answer 21

progenesis

Question 22

reproductive development accelerates while somatic development proceeds at a constant rate

Answer 22

progenesis

Question 23

descendant species reproduces
at a morphological stage that
was juvenile in its ancestors

Answer 23

pedomorphosis

Question 24

somatic features accelerated while reproductive organs are unchanged

Answer 24

acceleration (recapitulation-by acceleration)

Question 25

somatic features remain unchanged but reproductive organs are retarded

Answer 25

hypermorphosis (recapitulation - by prolongation)

Question 26

refers to all cases in which the timing or rate of one developmental process in the body changes during evolution relative to the rate of another developmental process

Answer 26

heterochrony

Question 27

It essentially describes how the timing of developmental traits shifts during evolution, leading to changes in how and when features develop

Answer 27

Heterochrony

Question 28

show that shape changes could have been produced by simple regulatory changes in growth gradients.

Answer 28

D’Arcy Thompson’s diagrams

Question 29

Thompson's fundamental idea was that the differences in shape between related species were not necessarily the result of countless small, independent evolutionary changes in individual parts, but rather could arise from systematic, global deformations of a basic form. He proposed that these transformations could be represented by deforming a coordinate grid upon which one organism's shape was drawn to produce the shape of another.

Answer 29

D’Arcy Thompson’s diagrams

Question 30

happens when two or more species influence each other’s evolution; requires reciprocal influences between species

Answer 30

coevolution

Question 31

changes in one species influence the other but not the reverse

Answer 31

sequential evolution

Question 32

phylogenetic trees of the two interacting taxa form mirror images

Answer 32

cophylogenies

Question 33

describes a process where new species arise from the divergence of existing species, creating new niches that can then be exploited by other organisms, leading to a chain reaction of speciation

Answer 33

sequential evolution

Question 34

the study of how the evolutionary histories of two related groups of organisms (hosts and associates) align

Answer 34

cophylogeny

Question 35

a concept in evolutionary biology that posits that organisms must constantly adapt, evolve, and proliferate not merely to gain reproductive advantage, but also simply to survive while pitted against ever-evolving opposing species

Answer 35

red queen hypothesis

Question 36

suggests that species continually evolve to maintain a level of adaptation against competing species

Answer 36

red queen hypothesis

Question 37

the mutual adaptation of two or more entities, like species, genes, or parts within an organism, where their adaptations are beneficial when they occur together

Answer 37

coadaptation

Question 38

type of symbiotic relationship where two different species interact in a way that provides a net benefit to both

Answer 38

mutualism

Question 39

means that two separate lineages mutually influence each other’s evolution

Answer 39

coevolution

Question 39

each species exerts selection pressures on, and evolves in response to, the other species

Answer 39

coevolution

Question 40

refers to the special case of evolution in which the species’ environment is itself evolving

Answer 40

coevolution

Question 41

refers to the changes in the structure and function of biologically important molecules, metabolic pathways, and subcellular structures over time

Answer 41

biochemical evolution

Question 42

means that change in one lineage selects for change in the other lineage, but not vice versa

Answer 42

Sequential evolution

Question 43

changes in one of the two taxa lead to changes in the other, but not the other way round

Answer 43

Sequential evolution

Question 44

refers to a pathogen or parasite changing its primary host species

Answer 44

host shift

Question 45

describes an evolutionary process where multiple species interact with and influence the evolution of other groups of species

Answer 45

diffuse coevolution

Question 46

In informal terms, means how destructive the parasite is

Answer 46

virulence

Question 47

In formal terms, it is expressed as the reduction in fitness of a parasitized host relative to an unparasitized host

Answer 47

virulence

Question 48

a form of natural selection that favors behaviors that benefit an individual's close relatives, even if those behaviors come at a cost to the individual's own fitness

Answer 48

kin selection

Question 49

In internal parasites it typically means the movement of the offspring of parasites living inside one host on to another host

Answer 49

transmission

Question 49

in external parasite, may mean the movement of an adult parasite that has been living off one individual host on to another host

Answer 49

transmission

Question 50

parasite transfers from its host to the offspring of that host; this can be done by a variety of mechanisms a by the mother’s milk, or simply by jumping from host parent to host offspring when the two are near each other, or inside the gamete

Answer 50

vertical transmission

Question 51

the parasite transfers between unrelated hosts, not particularly from parent to offspring, and this may be done through breathing, or by a vector such as a biting insect, or by copulation of one host with another

Answer 51

horizontal transmission

Question 52

Cophylogenies between parasites and hosts

Answer 52

Fahrenholz's rule

Question 53

a hypothesis in evolutionary biology, particularly relevant to the study of coevolution, that states that the phylogeny (evolutionary history and relationships) of obligate parasites tends to mirror, or be congruent with, the phylogeny of their hosts.

Answer 53

Fahrenholz's rule

Question 54

host species and its parasite species tend to split at the same time

Answer 54

cospeciation

Question 55

refers to the parallel diversification of two or more interacting species, where they each split into new species in tandem

Answer 55

cospeciation

Question 56

This method examines the rate of change in DNA or amino acid sequences between different lineages.

Answer 56

molecular clock

Question 57

a coevolutionary process where two or more species (or groups within a species) continuously adapt and evolve in response to each other, leading to an escalation of defenses and counter-defenses

Answer 57

arms race

Question 58

the ratio of its actual brain size to the brain size it would be expected to have given its body size and the general trend

Answer 58

encephalization quotient

Question 59

sometimes thought of as a crude measure of “intelligence” in a species

Answer 59

encephalization quotient

Question 59

an evolutionary context refers to an ongoing, reciprocal increase in the severity of adaptations between interacting species. It's a type of evolutionary arms race where each side develops more potent offensive or defensive traits in response to the other.

Answer 59

escalation

Question 60

graphically represents the survival rates of different taxa (species, genera, etc.) over time, helping to understand longevity, extinction rates, and other "life history" attributes of higher taxa

Answer 60

taxonomic survivorship curves

Question 61

refers to a specific type of coevolutionary dynamic that is characterized by an ongoing, reciprocal evolutionary arms race between interacting species, where each adaptation in one species selects for a counter-adaptation in the other

Answer 61

red queen coevolution

Question 62

a type of coevolution where two or more species exert reciprocal selective pressures on each other, leading to adaptations that harm or counteract the adaptations of the other species

Answer 62

antagonistic coevolution

Question 63

the competing species have evolved to a set of optimal states and then simply stay there

Answer 63

static equilibrium

Question 64

a state of stasis, where a species or a trait within a species shows very little or no significant evolutionary change over long periods

Answer 64

static equilibrium

Question 65

Instead of evolving to an optimal state and then staying there, this result arises when adaptive improvement is always possible, and the species continually evolves to attain that improvement.

Answer 65

dynamic equilibrium

Question 66

a model that explains why coevolutionary arms races (and thus, constant adaptation) are necessary for survival, especially in antagonistic interactions like host-parasite systems

Answer 66

Red Queen hypothesis

Question 67

It's a natural part of evolutionary history, occurring when a species is unable to adapt to environmental changes or when environmental pressures, such as climate change or habitat loss, become too severe for the species to survive.

Answer 67

extinction

Question 68

refers to a rapid diversification of a lineage into a variety of new forms, often associated with a change in the environment or the opening of new ecological niches

Answer 68

radiation

Question 69

the evolutionary process where differences in speciation and extinction rates between species lead to changes in the composition of a group of species over time

Answer 69

species selection

Question 70

the process where a new phenotype (mutant) replaces the original phenotype within a species, leading to the extinction of the original phenotype

Answer 70

evolutionary replacement

Question 71

means that a small number of ancestral species in one taxon diversifies into a larger number of descendant species, occupying a broader range of ecological niches

Answer 71

adaptive radiation

Question 72

refers to the situation where an ancestral species appears to have gone extinct, but its lineage continues to exist as a new, distinct species

Answer 72

pseudoextinction

Question 73

the lineage has died out and left no descendants

Answer 73

real extinction

Question 74

means that the taxon appears to go extinct, but only because of an error or artifact in the evidence, and not because the underlying lineage really ceased to exist

Answer 74

pseudoextinction

Question 75

a theory about the cause of extinctions. It suggests that species go extinct when they are outcompeted by other species that have made evolutionary advances.

Answer 75

Red Queen hypothesis

Question 75

A lineage may disappear temporarily from the fossil record, perhaps because appropriate sediments were not laid down for a while.

Answer 75

Lazarus taxa

Question 76

a period of geological time when a significant portion of Earth's species go extinct at a rate much higher than normal. It's characterized by a rapid decline in biodiversity, often due to major environmental changes like climate shifts, asteroid impacts, or volcanic eruptions.

Answer 76

mass extinction

Question 77

the egg is released into the surface waters of the ocean and develops into a larval form which disperses among, and feeds on, the microscopic organisms (called “plankton”) that float near the ocean surface

Answer 77

planktonic development

Question 78

the eggs and young grow up near or (to begin with) inside the parental snail

Answer 78

direct development

Question 79

aims to explain why individuals sacrifice themselves for the good of the group (or species) they belong to, and we have seen that it is difficult for adaptations of this sort to arise

Answer 79

group selection

Question 80

a period of unusually rapid and widespread loss of biodiversity, where a significant percentage of species die out within a relatively short geological time frame. This is usually defined as the loss of at least 75% of species, occurring within a few million years

Answer 80

mass extinction

Question 81

It resulted in the extinction of approximately 75% of plant and animal species on Earth, including all non-avian dinosaurs. The event is thought to be primarily caused by a large asteroid impact.

Answer 81

Cretaceous-Tertiary mass extinction

Question 82

refers to the ongoing, relatively low rate of species extinction that occurs naturally over geologic time; a normal part of the evolutionary process, with species going extinct due to factors like climate change, competition, or disease

Answer 82

background extinction

Question 83

This event involved the extinction of about half of the mammal genera, including the last of the ancient cetaceans (Archaeoceti). A large-scale extinction of marine invertebrates also occurred during this period.

Answer 83

Oligocene-Eocene extinction