Chapter 3 Flashcards

Question

Word fragment identification test:

Answer 1

Participants are presented with a few letters of the word and are asked to name a word that fits.

Answer 2

Participants who had previously been presented with a list of words are then presented with words from the list as well as other words at very brief exposure, and are asked to identify these words.

Answer 3

Participants are either presented with words or non-word letter strings and are asked to decide as quickly as possible whether the presented item was a word or a non-word.  Decisions about target words are made quicker when they had previously been presented

Answer 4

Participants who had previously learned a list of words containing among others a set of animals are then asked to name as many animals as they can remember.

Answer 5

The phenomenon that exposure to an object or a word in one context increases the accessibility of the mental representation of that object or word in a person’s mind. o As a result, the activated concept exerts for some time unintended influence on the individual’s responses in subsequent unrelated contexts without the individual being aware of this influence

Answer 6

o Performance on the explicit memory test was worst in the no context and best in “generate” condition o Performance on the implicit memory test was worst in “generate” condition and best in the no context condition

Answer 7

The participant is exposed to the priming stimuli as part of a conscious task. o Being aware of the stimulus, but not its influence

Answer 8

 Encoding usually relies on some kind of prior knowledge  Categories are the most elementary knowledge structure, reflecting a class of objects that we believe belongs together  By categorizing a stimulus, we assign meaning to that stimulus without having to think about the properties and functions of that object  An early classical view assumed that categories should be represented as a set of defining features that apply to all category members o However, most natural categories cannot be defined in terms of such features  More recently, a probabilistic or prototype view of category representation has become accepted, which conceives of categories as a list of features that are typical for the category but not necessarily defining it o Classifying exemplars on the basis of their similarity to the prototype  Scripts: Abstract knowledge structures that describe standardized sequences of events and the interrelationship between different (role-)categories. o Cultures vary in terms of scripts that apply to specific situations  Knowledge stored in memory does not consist of isolated bits, but of a network of association between these items  Associative network models conceive of mental representations of each isolated piece of knowledge as a discrete “node” connected to other nodes by “links” of various types o Links are formed or strengthened whenever items that are experienced or thought about together o The level of activation of nodes can vary rapidly over time and varies from occasion to occasion o The more activated a node is, the more likely it is that it will burst into awareness, be recalled, or be applied to incoming information o LTM as a single large associative network o STM as the currently activated subset of the LTM

Answer 9

Abstract knowledge structures that describe standardized sequences of events and the interrelationship between different (role-)categories. o Cultures vary in terms of scripts that apply to specific situations

Answer 10

 Standard strategies marketers use to measure the effectiveness of an ad are recall tests and recognition tests; these are ineffective o Exposure to advertisements can impact implicit memory, and these effects may not be detectable with measures of explicit memory o Recollection of arguments made in a campaign may be unrelated to consumers’ attitude towards the advertised product, because the targets of advertising campaigns may change their product judgements online while being exposed to the campaign

Answer 11

 Recognition was poorer when attention was divided (rather than undivided) and when assessment was delayed (rather than immediate) → measure of explicit memory  The effect of ad exposure on implicit memory was as strong under divided as under undivided attention and as strong after a week as it had been when tested immediately → measure of implicit memory  Sole use of measures of explicit memory to assess the effectiveness of advertising is likely to result in an underestimation of the impact of advertising campaigns on memory  Attitude change achieved by a campaign, rather than memory for arguments contained in the advertisements, should be the indicator on which an evaluation of campaign effectiveness should be based

Answer 12

 Memory-based judgment: Making a judgement after taking all the available information in.  Online judgement: Integrating the information while we are exposed to it. o Our evaluations could be relatively unrelated to the product claims, even thought we might still be able to recall them at some later time  When participants knew beforehand that they had to make a judgement (online task), the correlation between recalled information and evaluation was non-significant  When participants did not know that they had to make a judgement, and had to make it after listening to the information (memory-based task), a considerable correlation emerged between recall and evaluation  Why are the evaluations of individuals who make online judgements unrelated to argument recall? o Individuals who are trying to form an evaluation while listening to information are more likely to elaborate the information they are given  In evaluating the product, they will rely more heavily on their own reactions and elaborations of the original information than on the information itself  Individuals store both attribute-based and evaluation-based representation in separate representations; each of these may be used independently in subsequent judgments o Evaluation-based representation is used for making global memory-based judgements o Attribute-based representations is used for making discrete memory-based judgments

Answer 13

Making a judgement after taking all the available information in

Answer 14

Integrating the information while we are exposed to it. o Our evaluations could be relatively unrelated to the product claims, even thought we might still be able to recall them at some later time

Answer 15

 Consumers make numerous decisions every day that can vary on a continuum of the level of involvement required in making that decision o Low involvement – repetitive, routine, or habitual choices o High involvement – infrequently bought, and expensive goods  Consider-then-choose decision strategy  Purchasing situations vary in the extent to which they encourage more memory-based or more stimulus-based strategies  Highly accessible brands are likely to attract more attention and to seem more familiar  Differences in conceptual elaboration should have greater impact on memory-based than stimulus-based choices o Sentences were better remembered in measures of explicit memory o Words in isolation led to better performance on measures of implicit memory  Memory-based choices benefitted more when the brand name was presented in a context that encouraged elaboration (i.e. as part of a sentence), whereas stimulus- based choices benefitted more when the brand name was presented in an isolated context  In addition to increasing the accessibility of the primed brand name, priming can also increase the accessibility of closely associated brands and of the product category to which the brand belongs o More likely if the brand is prototypical for the product category, and if that particular product category was previously not highly accessible in the individual’s mind  By reminding individuals that there is an attractive but non-obvious choice alternative, some individuals are likely to choose this alternative, which they would not have thought of unaided  Under certain conditions, even mere exposure to a brand name can increase evaluation by increasing processing fluency; but these effects are limited to stimuli that are unfamiliar  The set of brands consumers consider when deciding on a purchase is typically not only smaller than the total number of brands available in the marketplace, but also smaller than the number of brands of which the consumer is aware  Priming that required a greater degree of conceptual elaboration was more effective for memory-based choices but was less effective when choice was stimulus-based o For stimulus-based choices, exposure to the brand name as a single word was most effective  Under certain conditions, priming can influence purchasing decisions: o When individuals have no particular preference for a specific brand o When their preferred brand is not available o When an attractive, but less accessible, subcategory of a given product category has been primed

Answer 16

 Forgetting is influenced by: o The passage of time o Experiences in the period between exposure to information and recall  Exposure to competing information (interference theories)  Retroactive interference: The effect of later learned material on earlier learning.  Proactive interference: What we have learned earlier can interfere with later learning.  Advertising clutter: The extent to which multiple messages compete for the consumer’s attention.

Answer 17

The effect of later learned material on earlier learning.

Answer 18

What we have learned earlier can interfere with later learning

Answer 19

The extent to which multiple messages compete for the consumer’s attention.

Answer 20

 Retroactive interference experiment o There was evidence of a great deal of competitive interference when target ads were presented with ads of brands from the same product class, but only for participants who merely had to evaluate interest value o The recall of participants who had to think about a purchase decision (deeper processing), was not affected by competing information  Proactive interference effects appear to increase with the passage of time  Similarity of advertising execution can also impair recall of advertising claims o The interference effect disappeared when product class was used as a cue

Answer 21

 The processing goal of the recipient of the ad information o Competitive interference stronger with more superficial processing  Brand familiarity o The impact of competitive interference is less strong for brands that are highly familiar o Familiar vs. unfamiliar products

Answer 22

 Retrieval cues o Useful in reducing interference from other advertisements for competing brands from the same product category  Repetition of advertisements and spacing o Positive relationship between number of trials and recall o The impact of ad repetitions on product attitudes is curvilinear and likely to decrease after a few repetitions o Spacing the repetitions of an ad rather than massing them can substantially increase the probability of message recall o Attention hypothesis: People pay less attention to a second or third presentation of the same advertisement if they realize that it is the same and that they miss nothing if they ignore it. o Encoding variability hypothesis: Spaced presentations enhance recall, because spacing can increase encoding variability  Formation of more cue-target associations o Retrieval explanation: Each time information is retrieved form memory increases the probability that it can be recalled the following time. The more difficult the acct of retrieval, the more potent it will be as a learning event.  Serial position o Items presented first and last are recalled better than items that were presented in the middle, although the recency effect disappears if there is a delay between presentation of the words and recall o Advertisements were more likely to be recalled if fewer commercials had been shown within a commercial break

Answer 23

People pay less attention to a second or third presentation of the same advertisement if they realize that it is the same and that they miss nothing if they ignore it.

Answer 24

Spaced presentations enhance recall, because spacing can increase encoding variability  Formation of more cue-target associations

Answer 25

Each time information is retrieved form memory increases the probability that it can be recalled the following time. The more difficult the acct of retrieval, the more potent it will be as a learning event.

Answer 26

 Advertising presented after experiencing a product can distort consumer’s memory of their experience  If a positive ad is shown before a judgment is made, the judgement will be better than when the ad is shown afterwards; selective information search  The effect of advertisements shown afterwards reflects a distortion of individuals’ memories of their evaluation, involving some form of selective retrieval, with possibly a reinterpretation of the retrieved evidence in the light of the ad claims  The effects of advertising on selective information search and on selective retrieval are most likely to occur for products or product dimensions that the average consumer finds difficult to judge  Reconstructive memory o Every act of remembering involves a reconstruction of information and this process is susceptible to inaccuracies o With no delay between the own experience and the ad, participant will still have a clear memory of their own experience and will rely most heavily on this information in making their judgement  Advertisements are most likely to distort our memory for experiences that have been rather ambiguous