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PSYCH 216 > Chapter 3 > Flashcards

Chapter 3 Flashcards

1
Q

Why study probability?

A

Gives us a way to evaluate risks associated with just about any sort of behavior

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2
Q

What is probability?

A

Key to accessing and understanding risks involved in any decision-making process

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3
Q

How do social scientists use probability?

A

Assess the likelihood of making incorrect inferences when generalizing about human behavior

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4
Q

What is probability in simple terms?

A

Likelihood of an event expressed in numerical terms as a fraction, decimal, or percent

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5
Q

What does a probability of zero indicate?

A

The event will never happen

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6
Q

What does a probability of one indicate?

A

It will absolutely happen

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7
Q

What values can’t be a probability?

A

A negative number

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8
Q

What is a probability experiment?

A

A situation involving chance or probability that leads to observable and measurable results

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9
Q

How many trials could a probability experiment consist of?

A

One or many trials

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10
Q

How many outcomes come from each trial?

A

Only one outcome for each trial

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11
Q

What do all probability experiments have in common?

A

Must have more than one possible outcome, can be specified in advance, due to chance

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12
Q

What is a non-example of probability?

A

Only has one possible outcome, can’t be specified in advanced, and outcomes are not due to chance

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13
Q

What are examples of non-probability?

A

Football player running for a touchdown, buying a raffle ticket, your church sponsoring a Vegas night to raise money for charity

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14
Q

What is a trial?

A

Single performance of a probability event

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15
Q

What is an outcome?

A

The result of a single probability experiment

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16
Q

What is a set?

A

Describe collections of objects or values that have been defined according to a rule or statement

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17
Q

What is each object or value in a set?

A

An element of the set

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18
Q

What are sets denoted by?

A

A capital letter

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19
Q

What is an event?

A

Subset of the sample space, collection of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment

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20
Q

What does a simple event consist of?

A

Single outcome

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21
Q

What does a compound event consist of?

A

More than one outcome

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22
Q

What is the sample space?

A

Description of all possible outcomes of a probability experiment

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23
Q

What is the first step in determining the probability of any single outcome?

A

Writing out the description of the sample space

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24
Q

What does the sum of all probabilities of all possible outcomes in the sample space must equal to?

A

One

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25
Q

What is the formula for any given outcome?

A

P(x) = X / Total outcomes in the sample space

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26
Q

What is the complement of an event?

A

All outcomes that are not the event

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27
Q

What happens if the complement of an event is not occurring?

A

Designated as a prime

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28
Q

What can the relationship for complement of events be shown as?

A

P(A’) = 1- P(A)

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29
Q

How can you find the probability associated with a prime number?

A

Take 1 and subtract that from the sample space value then that is the value of the prime complement value

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30
Q

What are the three ways to arrive at a probability statement?

A

Theoretical probability, empirical probability, and subjective probability

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31
Q

What is theoretical or classical probability?

A

Assumption about the nature of the event, assumed that n events are equally likely to occur

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32
Q

What is empirical or relative frequency probability?

A

Based on the observed outcomes of one or a series of trials

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33
Q

What type of probability is used most often in statistical inference procedures?

A

Empirical

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34
Q

What is subjective probability?

A

Based on personal belief about the likelihood of an event occurring

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35
Q

What is subjective probability not based on?

A

Any real math or formal calculations, and is therefore unreliable

36
Q

How would you represent the event of choosing a specific result?

A

P(E) = P(D) = Probability

37
Q

How would you represent if an event is equally likely?

A

P(A) + P(B) + P(C) + P(D) = . + . + . + . = 1 (should add up to one)

38
Q

What are the four types of events in probability experiments?

A

Independent events, dependent events, mutually exclusive events, complementary events

39
Q

What happens if two events are independent?

A

Probability that one will occur is not affected by whether or not the other has occurred

40
Q

What is an example of independent events?

A

If you roll a dice twice the outcome of the second trial is not affected by the outcome of the first trial so it would still be 1/6

41
Q

What are dependent events?

A

Probability that one will occur is affected by the occurrence of the other

42
Q

What is an example of a dependent event?

A

If a queen is drawn from a deck of cards and the card is not replaced then the probability of drawing a queen on the second trial is changed as a result of the outcome of the first trial

43
Q

What are mutually exclusive events?

A

If two events cannot occur at the same time

44
Q

What is an example of a mutually exclusive event?

A

Cramming for an exam and training for a bicycle race

45
Q

What does the Upside down U symbol indicate?

A

An intersection between point A and B

46
Q

What happens if two events have a non-zero chance of occurring?

A

The can’t be independent if mutually exclusive

47
Q

What happens if two events are independent?

A

They can’t be mutually exclusive

48
Q

What are not mutually exclusive events?

A

If they can occur at the same time

49
Q

What is an example of a not mutually exclusive event?

A

If there are juniors and English majors you can be both

50
Q

What are complementary events?

A

Two outcomes of a trial that are the only two possible outcomes

51
Q

What do complementary events imply?

A

That the events are mutually exclusive since only one of the other two outcomes can occur

52
Q

What is a example of a complementary event?

A

Flipping a coin and getting head for tails are complementary outcomes because there are no other outcomes possible, the result must be one or the other

53
Q

What does the relationship between complementary and mutually exclusive events indicate?

A

That all complementary events are mutually exclusive but not all mutually exclusive events are necessarily complementary

54
Q

What is the fundamental counting principle?

A

Enables us to find the number of ways a combination or series of independent events can occur

55
Q

What can the fundamental counting principle be used to quickly determine?

A

Total possible outcomes in a sample space without having to create a diagram

56
Q

What is the multiplication rule?

A

Can be used to find the probability that two or more events occurs in sequence and takes the fundamental counting principle a step further by taking into account both independent and dependent events

57
Q

How can you simple calculate the fundamental counting principle?

A

Taking the possible outcomes and then putting that to the power of how many times it is being funneled through 10 possible numbers through a 4 digit code is 10^4

58
Q

What happens in the multiplication rule if there are independent events?

A

Probability that they will all occur is equal to the product of their individual probabilities

59
Q

How can the independent events application of the multiplication rule be represented?

A

P (A and B) = P(A) x P (B) —can be expanded for as many events as you need to multiply

60
Q

My process for explaining the independent multiplication process

A

Taking the probabilities of however many events you are looking at and then you take those calculated probabilities and multiply them together to get your combined value for the independent events

61
Q

How can dependent events be represented in the context of the multiplication rule?

A

Probability of event B occurring, given that event A has already occurred

62
Q

What is dependent events in the multiplication rule represented by?

A

P (B | A)

63
Q

What is the first step in the dependent event probability process?

A

Determine the probability that A will occur P(A)

64
Q

What is the second step in the dependent event probability process?

A

Determine the probability that B will occur, given that A has occurred P (B | A)

65
Q

What is the third step in the dependent event probability process?

A

Multiple P(A) by P(B|A) to find the probability that events A and B will occur in sequence

66
Q

What is the representation of step three in the dependent event process?

A

P (A and B) = P(A) x P(B|A)

67
Q

Description of the process of dependent events in my words

A

You take the initial probability of your first event, then you take the probability of the second event, before you multiple the two together and that’s your combined probability

68
Q

What is the addition rule?

A

Be used to find the probability that at least one of the two events will occur

69
Q

How does the addition rule differ from the multiplication rule?

A

Multiplication rule is used to find the probability that both or all events will occur, addition rule is used to find probability that either event will occur

70
Q

What can you think of the addition rule as?

A

Or

71
Q

What can you think of the multiplication rule as?

A

And

72
Q

What is the basic statement of the addition rule stated as?

A

P(A and B)= P(A) + P(B) - P(A and B)

73
Q

What are mutually exclusive events in the addition rule?

A

Probability that one or the other will occur is equal to the sum of their individual probabilities

74
Q

How can mutually exclusive events in the addition rule be stated as?

A

P(A and B) = P(A) + P(B)

75
Q

What is the process of the mutually exclusive events in the addition rule in my words

A

Take the probability of event one and event 2 and then add them together to get the final result

76
Q

What is the not mutually exclusive events of the addition rule?

A

If they are not mutually exclusive we have to subtract the probability associated with the intersection of the events to avoid double counting the shared elements

77
Q

What is the process of not mutually exclusive events in my own words in regard to the addition rule?

A

Take the probabilities of your first probability and the second probability and then the probability of the common connector. You then take the original two values and subtract them from the common connector to get your final probability

78
Q

What is the role of sample space in a probability experiment?

A

collection of all the possible outcomes

79
Q

What does calculating probabilities allow us to predict?

A

Likelihood of events over the long term

80
Q

What are the equally-likely models of probability?

A

Any one event in the sample space is just as likely to occur as any other possible event

81
Q

What is random sampling?

A

Techniques ensure that all possible samples of a particular size have an equal chance of being selected from a population

82
Q

What is sampling with replacement?

A

Any one observation can appear more than once in a sample

83
Q

What is sampling without replacement?

A

Any observation can appear only once in a sample

84
Q

When is the additive theorem easiest to use?

A

When the events are mutually exclusive

85
Q

When is the multiplicative theorem easiest to use?

A

When the events are independent

PSYCH 216 (18 decks)

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